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EDITED  BY 

WILLIAM  T.  HARRIS,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 


Volume  VL 


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EDITED   BY 

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INTERNA  TIONA  L  ED  UGA  TION  mSdM; 


ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY 
AND    EDUCATION 


A  TEXT-BOOI  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS, 

NORMAL  SCHOOLS,  NORMAL  INSTITUTES,  AND  READING  CIRCLES, 

AND  A  MANUAL  FOR  TEACHERS 


BY 

JOSEPH   BALDWIN 

PRINCIPAL  OF  THE    BAM    HOUSTON    STATE    NORMAL  SCHOOL,  HUNT8VILLE.  TEXAS ; 
AUTHOR  OF  ''ART  OF  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT^' 


NEW  YORK 

D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 

1903 


COPTKIGHT,  1887, 

By  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY. 
EDUCATION  OEIPT* 


DEDICATED 

TO  THE 

GREAT  BROTHERHOOD   OF  TEACHERS. 


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ELEMENTARY  PEDAGOGY. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   BY   JOSEPH   BALDWIN,   A.  M.,  LL.  D. 


Volume  I. 
Art  of 
School  Man- 
agement. 

Kirksville. 
Missouri  State 
Normal  School. 


Volume  II. 
Elementary 
Psychology. 
Vol.  VI,  Int. 

Ed.  Ser. 

Huntsville. 

Texas  State 

Normal  School. 


Volume  III. 

Psychology 

applied  to 

the  Art  of 

Teaching. 

Vol.  XIX,  Int. 

Ed.  Ser. 

Austin. 

University  of 

Texas. 


Volume  IV. 
School  Man- 
agement AND 
School 
Methods. 

Vol.  XL, 
Int.  Ed.  Ser. 

Austin. 

University  of 

Texas. 


f      I.  Educational    Instrumentalities  and  School 
Hygiene. 
II.  School  Organization  and  Classification. 

III.  School  Government  and  Educative  Punish- 

ments. 

IV.  Courses  of  Study  and  Programmes. 

v.  Class  Management  and  Methods  of  Teaching. 
VI.  Examination,  Marking,  Records,  Promotion, 

and  Graduation. 
VII.  Professional  Education,  School  Supervision, 
and  Educational  Progress. 
I.  Instinct,  Sensorium,  Sensation,  and  Atten- 
tion. 
II.  Sense  Perception,  Self  Perception,  and  Ne- 
cessary Perception. 

III.  Memory,  Fancy,  and  Imagination. 

IV.  Conception,  Judgment,  and  Reason. 

V.  Egoistic  Emotions,  Altruistic  Emotions,  and 

Cosmic  Emotions. 
VI.  Will — Attention,  Choice,  and  Action. 
VII.  Physiological  Psychology  and  Education. 
I.  Education  of  the  Perceptive  Activities. 
II.  Education  of  the  Representative  Activities, 

III.  Education  of  the  Reflective  Activities. 

IV.  Education  of  the  Emotional  Activities. 
V.  Education  of  the  Will  Activities. 

VI.  The  Art  of  Teaching  and  Teaching  Methods. 

VII.  Application  of  Psychology  to  teaching  Con- 
duct Studies,  Language- Literature  Stud- 
ies, Science  Studies,  Mathematics  Studies, 
and  Art  Studies. 
I.  Pupil  Betterment  through  Better  Educa- 
tional Conditions. 
II.  Pupil  Betterment  through  Better  Educa- 
tional Facilities. 

III.  Pupil  Improvement  through  Educative 
School  Government. 

IV".  Pupil  Improvement  through  Educative  Cor- 
relation of  Schools  and  School  Work. 
V.  Pupil  Betterment  through  Educative  Class 
Management  and  Class  Methods. 

VI.  Pupil  Improvement  through  Efficient  Meth- 
ods of  teaching  the  Conduct  Studies,  the 
Language-Literature  Studies,  the  Science 
Studies,  the  Mathematics  Studies,  and  the 
Art  Studies. 

VII.  Pupil  Betterment  through  Educative  School 
Unification  and  Supervision. 


EDITOE^S  PEEFAOE. 


It  is  often  said  that  the  teacher  needs  to  know  psy- 
chology because  it  is  his  business  to  educate  the  mind. 
"  He  ought  to  understand  the  nature  of  the  being  that 
he  is  trying  to  unfold  and  perfect." 

This  position  seems  so  obvious  that  all  assent  to  it, 
and  yet  it  must  be  admitted  that  teachers,  as  a  class,  are 
not  specially  devoted  to  the  study  of  psychology.  It 
is  true,  however,  that  they  are  constantly  occupied 
with  a  critical  observation  of  the  mind  in  a  few  of  its 
aspects ;  for  this  is  necessary  in  order  to  manage  a 
school  successfully.  The  teacher  must  observe  the 
pupil's  grasp  of  the  topic  of  his  lesson.  He  must  in- 
terpret the  pupil's  conduct  by  such  knowledge  as  he 
can  attain  of  his  disposition  and  the  spirit  of  his  inten- 
tions. He  must  assign  lessons  of  a  length  suited  to  the 
mental  capacities  which  he  knows  his  pupils  to  possess ; 
he  nmst  grade  them  in  classes  according  to  his  knowl- 
edge of  those  capacities.  He  must  arrange  a  course  of 
study  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  mental  development. 

If  the  teacher  knows  nothing  of  psychology  as  a 
science  he  must  copy  in  detail  the  methods  of  others, 
and  rely  on  his  general  knowledge  of  human  nature 


viii  EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 

derived  from  experience.  Like  all  uneducated  work- 
men he  may  succeed,  after  a  sort,  by  following  tradi- 
tion, unaided  by  science ;  but  he  will  not  develop  be- 
yond a  narrow  degree  of  perfection  in  details.  He  will 
have  no  insight  into  the  general  relations  of  his  work. 
He  can  not  safely  deviate  from  routine,  nor  venture  to 
criticise  his  own  work  or  the  work  of  others.  If  he  has 
learned  good  models  he  may  pass  for  a  good  teacher ;  if 
he  has  learned  bad  ones  he  is  unable  to  perceive  their 
defects.  Possessing  no  scientific  knowledge  of  the 
mind,  he  can  not  lift  himself  above  the  details  of  his  art 
to  the  principles  which  govern  them,  and  become  him- 
self an  oiiginal  source  of  directive  energy. 

Some  knowledge  of  the  mind  every  successful 
teacher  must  have,  although  in  so  many  cases  it  is 
unsystematic  and  consequently  unscientific.  Ordinary 
experience  differs  from  science  through  its  lack  of  com- 
pleteness and  consistency.  It  is  fragmentary  and  dis- 
connected. Science  compensates  the  inequalities  of 
individual  experience  by  re-enforcing  it  with  the  aggre- 
gate of  all  other  experience. 

Psychology  aims  to  inventory  the  facts  of  mind  and 
to  arrange  them  systematically,  so  that  each  fact  may 
help  to  explain  all  other  facts,  and  in  its  turn  be  ex- 
plained by  all. 

It  is  confessed  that  psychology  has  hitherto  borne 
the  reputation  of  being  the  dryest  and  least  interesting 
of  aU  the  sciences.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  circum- 
stance that  an  inventory  of  facts  of  consciousness  con- 
tains only  what  is  already  familiar  to  us  in  the  frag- 
mentary form  of  experience.  It  seems  a  waste  of  time 
to  go  over  and  collect  with  so  much  painstaking  what 


EDITOR'S   PREFACE.  ix 

is  already  known.  Other  sciences  collect  fresh  and  in- 
teresting facts.  Psychology  by  introspection  seems  to 
the  beginner  to  be  a  sterile  occupation,  deahng  with 
what  is  trite  and  stale.  But  this  is  not  found  to  be  so 
by  the  adept. 

Introspection  begins  with  this  dull  process  of  in- 
ventorying the  already  familiar  facts  of  mind,  but  it 
forthwith  proceeds  to  the  second  and  higher  process  of 
reflecting  on  the  general  form  of  our  mental  processes. 
It  then  begins  to  enter  a  field  of  generalization  entirely 
unknown  to  ordinary  consciousness  and  full  of  astonish- 
ing results.  By  reflecting  on  the  forms  of  mental  ac- 
tivity we  come,  for  the  first  time,  to  see  the  real  nature 
of  mind.  We  begin  to  discern  those  most  important 
of  all  fruits  of  human  knowledge — the  truths  that  sit 
supreme  as  directive  powers  on  the  throne  of  life — the 
truths  of  God,  Freedom,  and  Immortality. 

But  we  are  met  here  by  an  objection.  We  are  re- 
minded that  there  are  two  hostile  schools  of  psychology. 
There  is  one  founded  upon  physiology  which  attempts 
to  explain  mind  as  a  function  of  the  body.  It  con- 
demns introspection,  and  teaches  that  the  soul  has  no 
subsistence  apart  from  the  body.  All  individuality  is 
corporeal.  The  other  school,  founded  on  introspection, 
contends  that  true  individuality  is  not  corporeal  by  any 
possibility.  The  corporeal  is  moved  by  external  forces, 
and  is  divisible,  changeable,  and  perishable,  while  self- 
active  energy  which  is  the  substance  of  mind  is  incor- 
poreal and  the  owner  of  all  individuality.  It  denies, 
moreover,  that  any  really  psychical  facts  may  be  discov- 
ered by  external  observation — by  taste,  smell,  touch, 
hearing,  or  seeing. 


X  EDITOR'S  TREFACE. 

Here  we  must  take  notice  of  the  broad  distinction 
that  exists  between  external  and  internal  observation. 
There  are  two  distinct  and  strongly-marked  attitudes  of 
mind.  The  first  is  directed  outward  to  the  facts  in 
space,  and  may  be  called  objective  perception  or  sense- 
perception.  Its  characteristic  is  found  in  the  circum- 
stance that  it  always  sees  things  as  related  to  environ- 
ments :  To  it  all  things  are  dependent  and  relative. 

The  other  attitude  of  mind  is  directed  within,  and 
beholds  the  self-activities  of  the  mind  itself.  Self -ac- 
tivity is  essentially  different  from  relative  and  depend- 
ent being,  because  it  does  not  receive  its  determinations 
from  its  environment,  but  originates  them  itself,  in  the 
form  of  feelings,  volitions,  and  thoughts.  All  objects 
of  introspection  belong  to  one  of  these  three  classes, 
and  every  possible  feeling,  idea,  or  volition,  is  a  deter- 
mination of  an  activity  which  is,  so  to  speak,  polarized 
into  subject  and  object.  Each  feeling,  idea,  or  volition, 
is  the  product  of  an  energy  which  is  both  subject  and 
object.  It  is  said  to  be  self-determined.  While  exter- 
nal observation  sees  its  object  as  separated  into  thing 
and  environment,  or  effect  and  caase,  internal  observa- 
tion sees  its  object  as  a  unity  containing  both  effect 
and  cause  in  one.  It  is  what  Spinoza  called  causa  sui. 
This  is  true  individuality — called  by  Aristotle  "  entele- 
chy,"  and  by  Leibnitz  the  "  Monad." 

Be  this  as  it  may,  all  must  concede  that  no  form  of 
external  experience  applies  or  can  apply  to  internal  ex- 
perience ;  our  apparatus  for  observing  material  objects 
can  not  perceive  feelings  or  thoughts.  This  being  so, 
it  is  evident  that  physiological  psychology  can  make  no 
progress  whatever  without  introspection.     It  is  limited 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  xi 

to  noting  the  relation  of  concomitance  and  succession 
between  two  orders  of  observation — the  objects  of  the 
one  being  movements  and  changes  of  organic  matter, 
and  the  objects  of  the  other  being  feehngs,  ideas,  and 
volitions.  The  progress  of  this  science  will  be  marked 
by  a  continually  approximating  accuracy  in  locating  and 
defining  physiological  functions. 

There  has  been  recognized  from  the  first  an  intercon- 
nection between  mind  and  the  body.  Decapitation  has 
always  been  recognized  as  a  means  of  disconnecting  the 
mind  from  the  body.  Alcohol,  tobacco,  coffee,  opium, 
and  many  other  drugs  have  been  used  since  prehistoric 
times  for  tlieir  supposed  mental  effects — effects  nega- 
tive rathe?  than  positive,  as  they  dull  the  action  of  the 
nerves  of  sensation,  or  diminish  the  mental  control  over 
the  nerves  of  motion,  and  thereby  allay  the  pain  of  weari- 
ness, or  th^  worry  that  arises  from  a  vivid  consciousness 
of  the  bod;^  and  the  outer  world.  Physiology  is  engaged 
in  determining  more  precisely  the  location  of  these  ef- 
fects and  their  extent.  Although  it  will  not  discover 
how  the  corporeal  becomes  mental,  or  how  the  external 
becomes  internal,  for  *^^he  reason  that  objective  experience 
can  never  perceive  thoughts  and '  feelings ;  yet  it  will 
yield  rich  results  in  all  departments  wherein  the  mind 
uses  the  body  as  an  instrument  to  gain  knowledge,  or  to 
execute  its  volitions.  Insanity,  idiocy,  the  use  and  ab*T::;s> 
of  the  five  organs  of  sense,  all  that  relates  to  the  proper 
care  of  the  body;  the  influence  of  age,  sex,  climate, 
race  ;  the  phenomena  of  sleep,  dreams,  somnambulism, 
catalepsy;  whatever  relates  to  these  and  ^he  like  im- 
portant topics,  will  receive  elucidation.  The  negative 
conditions  of  mental  unfolding  will  be  defined.     But 


xii  EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 

that  which  is  an  original  energy  can  not  be  explained 
by  its  environment,  because  it  is  independent.  Nor  is 
it  strictly  speaking  correlated  to  the  body,  although  it 
uses  it  in  sense-perception  and  in  volition  as  an  instru- 
ment of  communication  with  the  outer  world. 

This  work  of  Professor  Baldwin  is  intended  by  its 
author  expressly  for  elementary  classes.  It  seeks  to 
aid  them,  by  many  happy  devices,  in  making  an  inven- 
tory of  the  mental  processes  and  in  arranging  the  items 
methodically.  It  aims  to  familiarize  those  commencing 
the  study  with  the  technical  nomenclature  and  useful 
discriminations  used  by  writers  of  our  day  in  treating 
this  theme.  Above  all,  it  expects  to  teach  the  pupil 
how  to  attain  the  second  order  of  observation ;  how  to 
pass  from  the  attitude  of  mind,  which  observes  external 
things,  to  that  attitude  of  mind  which  observes  internal 
activities.  To  make  this  transition  is  to  acquire  a  most 
important  power  of  thought.  To  think  things  and  en- 
vironments is  to  think  the  phenomenal,  the  transient, 
and  variable;  to  think  self-activity  is  to  think  the 
noumenal,  the  true  individuality,  and  what  is  divine  in 
human  nature. 

Although  the  author  has  purposely  omitted  from  this 
work  the  subtle  and  profound  discussions  which  arise  in 
advanced  psychology,  he  has  done  it  in  the  interest  of 
the  beginners  for  whom  the  book  is  made.  The  author 
is  well  assured  that,  once  drawn  into  the  study  of  mind 
and  well  disciplined  in  the  habit  of  internal  observation, 
it  is  only  a  matter  of  time  with  the  pupil  when  he  shall 
arrive  at  all  the  precious  arcana  of  psychology. 

W.  T.  Haeris. 

Concord,  Augmt,  1887. 


AUTHOE^S    PREFACE. 


Subject-lessons,  or  mind-less<?ns,  are  as  necessary 
as  object-lessons.  Object-lessons  give  a  direct  knowl- 
edge of  the  matter-world,  while  subject-lessons  give  a 
direct  knowledge  of  the  mind-world.  A  knowledge  of 
self  is  more  important  than  a  knowledge  of  things. 

Youth  is  the  time  for  suhject-lessons.  A  youth 
who  can  learn  algebra  and  physiology  and  rhetoric  is 
ready  for  Elementary  Psychology.  The  third  year  of 
the  high-school  course  and  the  second  year  of  the  nor- 
mal-school course  are  considered  pre-eminently  fitting 
periods  for  subject-lessons. 

A  subject-lesson  text-hook  is  needed.  Our  literature 
is  rich  in  psychologies  adapted  to  colleges  and  to  senior 
classes  in  our  normal  schools,  but  is  destitute  of  a  text- 
book suitable  for  our  high-  schools  and  for  the  lower 
classes  in  our  normal  schools.  The  want  of  such  a  text- 
book is  widely  felt.  The  author  has  given  the  best 
years  of  his  life  to  the  effort  to  prepare  such  a  text- 
book, and  thus  meet  this  want.  Each  lesson  here  sub- 
mitted has  been  given  scores  of  times  to  large  classes, 
with  highly  satisfactory  results.  While  it  is  true  that 
subject-lessons,  like  object-lessons,  must  be  largely  oral, 
yet  a  suitable  text-book  is  deemed  indispensable. 

An  Elementary  Psychology  deals  with  the  plain 


Xiy  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

fdcls  of  mind.  The  advanced  student  wishes  to  know 
what  Locke  and  Eeid  thought,  what  Kant  and  Hamil- 
ton taught,  and  what  McCosh  and  Wundt  said ;  but  the 
discussion  of  these  conflicting  views,  which  constitutes 
60  large  a  part  of  our  text-books  on  psychology,  only 
confuses  and  discourages  beginners.  An  incomparably 
better  plan,  it  is  thought,  is  to  lead  the  learner  to  look 
into  his  own  mind,  to  analyze  his  own  mental  acts,  to 
discover  for  himself  the  capabilities  of  the  soul.  The 
subject-lessons  are  thus  made  the  counterpart  of  object- 
lessons.  The  author  believes  that  the  time  has  come 
when  we  can  make  our  text-books  for  beginners  in  men- 
tal science  just  as  we  make  our  elementary  arithmetics 
and  chemistries,  without  reference  to  the  history  of  the 
science  or  the  peculiar  views  of  authors. 

A  simple  and  exhaustive  nomenclature  is  a  desidera- 
tum in  mental  science.  The  time  has  come,  it  is  be- 
lieved, to  reject  the  pedantic  and  misleading  terms  of  a 
crude  and  antiquated  psychology.  Fortunately,  few 
unfamiliar  terms  are  now  necessary.  Every  one  has 
some  knowledge  of  mind.  However  illiterate,  each  man 
has  his  own  crude  psychology.  So  far  as  correct,  the 
language  of  the  people  is  best.  By  using  the  language 
of  hterature  and  life.  Sully,  Hopkins,  Porter,  McCosh, 
and  others  have  done  much  to  popularize  mental  sci- 
ence. It  seems  fitting  in  an  elementary  work  to  still 
farther  popularize  the  subject. 

The  constant  effort  has  heen  to  present  each  point 
with  sunlight  clearness.  Short  sentences,  in  plain 
Anglo-Saxon,  is  the  rule.  Object-lessons,  bold  type,  out- 
lines, study-hints,  examples  to  work  out,  original  analy- 
ses, original  definitions,  original  applications,  and  helpful 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE.  XV 

illustrations  are  called  into  constant  requisition.  Men- 
tal science,  it  is  claimed,  may  be  as  fully  illustrated  as 
physical  science.  The  student  is  taught  to  observe  and 
analyze  the  operations  of  his  own  mind ;  to  look  within 
and  describe  what  he  sees  going  on.  Thus  he  becomes 
an  observer,  an  original  investigator.  He  brings  to  the 
study  of  the  soul  the  same  methods  that  Agassiz  appKed 
with  such  wonderful  effect  to  the  study  of  the  natural 
sciences.  "When  this  is  done  the  student  is  interested, 
and  the  study  of  Psychology  becomes  as  easy  and  fas- 
cinating as  that  of  Botany  or  Zoology. 

Leading  the  learner  to  huild  on  his  own  eotyperience 
is  the  fundamental  idea  in  this  worlc.  He  is  led  to  ob- 
serve the  workings  of  his  own  mind,  to  analyze  his  own 
mental  acts,  and  to  compare  the  recorded  or  observed 
mental  acts  of  others  with  his  own.  Thus  he  is  enabled 
to  make  definitions,  to  discover  laws,  and  to  apply  prin- 
ciples. 

The  facts  of  mind  are  our  common  heritage.  The 
ways  of  presenting  these  facts  are  individual.  It  gives 
the  author  special  pleasure  to  acknowledge  his  indebt- 
edness to  the  many  excellent  works  on  mental  science 
and  education.  "Wlierever  possible,  acknowledgment  is 
made  in  the  body  of  the  work;  but,  in  numerous  cases, 
this  has  been  impracticable.  For  a  third  of  a  century 
the  matter  of  the  volume  has  been  presented  in  lectures 
to  normal  classes  and  normal  institutes.  The  endeavor 
to  completely  adapt  the  matter  and  the  method  to  the 
wants  of  beginners,  has  led  to  many  changes  in  the  lan- 
guage, so  that  authors,  even  in  direct  quotations,  must 
not  be  held  strictly  responsible  for  the  form  in  which 
their  thoughts  here  appear. 
2 


Xvi  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

Applied  Psychology  and  teaching.  The  original 
purpose  was  to  combine  Elementary  and  Applied  Psy- 
chology, but  it  is  now  thought  best  to  present  Applied 
Psychology  in  a  separate  volume.  Two  reasons  led  to 
this  change :  1.  The  combined  volume  would  have 
been  inconveniently  large.  Brief  outlines  are  excellent 
for  reviews,  but  are  useless  for  beginners.  2.  Many 
students  will  wish  to  study  Elementary  Psychology  who 
will  not  care  to  study  Applied  Psychology.'  Then,  in 
normal  schools,  Elementary  Psychology  is  studied 
during  the  second  year,  while  Applied  Psychology  is 
Hot  taken  up  before  the  third  or  fourth  years.  Besides, 
it  became  evident  that  the  latter  subject  could  be 
treated  far  more  satisfactorily  in  a  separate  volume. 

The  hest,  rather  than  the  original^  has  heen  the  aim. 
Each  true  workman  builds  on  the  achievements  of  the 
race,  and  merely  adds  his  mite.  A  science  is  the  prod- 
uct of  innumerable  minds.  The  plan  of  these  lessons, 
however,  may  be  claimed  as  in  some  degree  original ;  in 
fact,  a  new  departure,  both  in  plan  and  execution,  was 
found  to  be  a  necessity  in  order  to  adapt  psychology 
to  the  wants  of  beginners. 

Subject-lessons  prepare  the  student  for  advanced 
werJc,  As  object-lessons  are  needful  to  prepare  the 
learner  to  study  natural  science,  so  subject-lessons  are 
necessary  to  prepare  the  student  to  understand  advanced 
psychologies,  and  to  read  with  profit  advanced  educa- 
tional works.  As  an  introductory  work,  this  volume  is 
submitted.  The  author  earnestly  hopes  that  these  les- 
sons will  prove  a  real  help  to  many  teachers,  and  an  in- 
spiration to  many  young  people. 


CONTEI^TS 


PART  I. 

INTRODUCTORY  LESSONS. 

OHAPTEB  PAOa 

I. — Attention 4 

II. — Instinct 15 

III. — Important  Terms  examined         ....  25 

IV. — The  Sensorium 35 

V. — Sensation 44 

PART  II. 

THE  PERCEPTIVE  POWERS. 

VI. — Sense-Perception,  or  Sense-Intuition       ..       .  59 

VII.— Conscious  Perception,  or  Self-Consciousness  .  71, 

VIII. — Noumenal  Perception,  or  Noumenal  Intuition  85 

IX.— Perceptive  Knowing — General  View       .       .  100 

PART  III. 
THE  REPRESENTATIVE  POWERS. 

X.— Memory 108 

XL— Phantasy 124 

XII.— Imagination 133 

XIII. — Representation — General  View        .       .       .  146 


xviii  CONTENTS. 

PART  IV. 
THE  THOUGHT  POWERS. 

CHAPTEB 

XIV.— Conception 

XV. — Judgment 

XVI.— Reason 

XVII. — Thought-Knowing — General  View    . 

PART  V. 

THE  FEELINGS. 

XVIII.— The  Instincts 

XIX. — The  Physical  Feelings — The  Appetites 
XX.— The  Emotions — Egoistic  Emotions 
XXI. — The  Emotions — Altruistic  Emotions 
XXII.— The  Emotions— Truth  Emotions 
XXIII. — The  Emotions — Esthetic  Emotions  . 
XXIV.— The  Emotions— Ethical  Emotions 
XXV. — The  Emotions — General  View  , 

PART  VI. 

THE  WILL-POWERS. 

XXVI.— Attention      ...... 

XXVII.— Action 

XXVIII.— Choice 

XXIX.— The  Will-Powers— General  View    . 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  PEIYATE  STUDENT. 


Many  young  people,  teachers  of  common  schools  and  others, 
greatly  desire  to  study  the  mind,  but  are  compelled  to  struggle 
upward  without  the  aid  of  the  living  teacher.  Each  line  of  this 
work  WPS  w^ritten  in  view  of  helping  this  large  and  deserving 
class.  These  hints,  though  given  directly  to  teachers,  apply 
equally  to  others. 

1.  Loolc  within.  What  object-lessons  are  to  children,  sub- 
ject-lessons are  to  you.  Observe  the  workings  of  your  own 
mind,  and  verify  each  statement  by  your  own  experience. 

2.  Study  the  child.  You  have  the  key,  for  the  child  knows, 
feels,  and  wills,  just  as  you  do.  Put  yourself  in  its  place.  Study 
intently  child-effort.  These  suhject- object  lessons  will  be  in- 
valuable to  you  as  well  as  to  your  pupils. 

3.  Hasten  leisurely.  You  can  well  afford  to  devote  a  week 
to  each  chapter.  Gradually  the  wonders  of  the  soul-world  will 
open  to  you.  Select  some  interested  friend  with  whom  you  can 
talk  the  lesson  over. 

4.  Work  out  your  own  definitions  and  illustrations.  This  is 
essential.  Build  on  your  own  experience.  "Work  out  everything 
for  yourself,  just  as  you  do  in  arithmetic  and  algebra. 

5.  Write  the  letters.  Select  an  appreciative  friend  who  will 
respond.  Try  to  make  each  subject  clear  to  this  friend.  Above 
all,  tell  just  how  the  subject  looks  to  you.  Writing  these  letters 
will  greatly  benefit  you. 

6.  You  will  work  in  the  light.  You  are  painfully  aware 
that  you  are  now  liable  to  blunder  at  every  step  because  you  are 
IgEorant  of  child-mind  and  of  the  laws  of  child-growth.  As  you 
advance,  all  will  become  clear,  and  you  will  begin  to  feel  the 
inspiration  of  the  artist.  To  rightly  direct  the  development  of 
an  immortal  soul  is  the  grandest  of  all  work. 


TEACBINO  ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY, 

The  experienced  teacher  needs  no  suggestions,  but  a  page 
from  the  book  of  experience  may  assist  one  who  teaches  psychol- 
ogy for  the  first  time : 

1.  Oral  lessons.  I  have  found  it  necessary  to  give  one  or 
more  oral  lessons  on  each  subject  to  prepare  the  student  to  study 
the  lesson  in  the  book.  Then,  the  text  needs  to  be  supplemented 
by  much  oral  work.    Illustrate  from  students'  daily  work. 

2.  Clea/mess.  It  is  marvelous  how  crude  and  confused  are 
the  psychological  and  educational  notions  of  most  of  the  persons 
we  meet.  But  our  stupid  methods  of  teaching  this  subject  are 
largely  to  blame.  Here  and  everywhere  we  must  build  on  per- 
sonal experience,  and  manage  to  have  the  student  grasp  fully  the 
elementary  facts  of  mind.  The  suggestions  to  the  private  student 
may  benefit  all  students. 

3.  Beviews.  Each  lesson  should  in  some  way  involve  all  the 
previous  lessons.  No  other  branch  requires  such  constant  reitera- 
tion and  review.  All  possible  combinations  of  the  facts  of  mind 
must  be  woven  into  the  warp  and  woof  of  the  learner's  mental 
economy. 

4.  Troublesome  questions.  Psychology  touches  and  to  some 
extent  underlies  all  other  departments  of  knowledge.  Questions 
involving  philosophy  and  theology  and  sociology  can  not  be  ig- 
nored. I  have  found  it  best  to  frankly  answer  these  questions 
as  best  I  could,  avoiding  alike  all  semblance  of  either  dogmatism 
or  mysticism.  But  no  time  or  energy  must  be  wasted  in  discuss- 
ing these  questions.  Young  people  will  understand  that  such  dis- 
cussions belong  in  the  advanced  work. 

5.  Short  lessons.  The  student  enters  a  new  field  of  inquiry. 
The  terms,  as  well  as  the  ideas,  are  new.  Then  the  learner  has 
to  learn  the  new  art  of  introspection.  Usually  it  will  be  best 
to  give  about  three  pages  for  a  lesson.  The  work  can  thus  be 
completed  in  twenty  weeks.  I  have  not  been  able  to  secure 
satisfactory  results  in  a  shorter  period.  Short  book-lessons  and 
long  oral  lessons  is  the  true  policy. 

6.  Reference  hooks.    A  few  choice  volumes  are  indispensable. 


PART    I. 
INTRODUCTORY  LESSONS. 


CHAPTER  I.— Attention. 
II. — Instinct. 

III.— Important  Terms  Examined. 
IV.— The  Sensorium. 
V. — Sensation. 


WAYS  OP  STUDYING  MIND. 


<>■' 


«    IS 


\\%k 


^"'^fs^^.      ^-;:^v 


The  true  psychology  gathers  up  from  every  source  the  estab- 
lished facts  of  mind.  The  old,  or  metaphysical  psychology,  inclined 
to  ignore  the  body ;  the  new,  or  physiological  psychology,  inclines 
to  ignore  the  soul ;  the  true  psychology  finds  in  the  brain  and  nerves 
the  bridge  between  mind  and  matter.  The  theories  and  metaphysi- 
cal speculations  of  both  the  old  and  the  new  psychology  disappear ; 
but  all  the  established  facts  of  mind  reappear  in  the  true  psy- 
chology. 


FIRST   PART. 

INTRODUCTORY  LESSONS, 


MIND-STUDY  AND  EDUCATION. 

By  this  is  meant  becoming  acquainted  with  our- 
selves and  developing  our  powers.  Self-knowledge  is 
the  most  valuable.  "  Know  thyself  "  is  the  key  to  wis- 
dom and  success. 

Our  earlier  years  are  largely  devoted  to  the  mastery 
of  the  material  world.  The  study  of  Nature  interests 
and  educates  the  child,  but  does  not  satisfy  the  youth. 
He  begins  to  realize  that  the  mind-world  is  even  more 
wonderful  than  the  matter-world.  What  am  I  ?  What 
can  1  do  ?  How  can  I  make  the  most  of  myself  ?  These 
questions  now  obtnide  themselves,  and  must  be  an- 
swered. "  Elementary  Psychology  and  Education"  will 
seek  answers  to  these  questions,  or,  rather,  will  try  to 
lead  you  to  find  out  the  answers  for  yourself. 

In  your  study  of  physical  science  you  began  with 
physical  phenomena  and  worked  up  to  physical  laws. 
Each  step  forward  was  based  on  your  own  experience. 
You  thus  gained  the  keys  to  the  accumulated  experi- 
ence of  the  race.  To  you  physical  science  has  become 
an  open  book.  You  can  now  read  with  delight  the 
works  of  the  great  scientists. 


■  .4      \  ?le.m:k:Kt1ry  psychology  and  education. 

:  f:  In"  jaur  stpdy  ©f  mental  science  you  will  begin  with 
'  meiltial  plb^noineha  and  work  up  to  mental  laws.    Here, 

too,  each  step  will  be  based  on  your  own  experience. 

You  will  thus  gain  the  keys  to  the  treasured  wisdom  of 

the  race.     Mental  science  will  become  to  you  an  open 

book,  and  you  will  be  able  to  commune  with  the  great 

thinkers  of  all  ages. 

As  attention  is  the  condition  of  knowledge,  it  is 

fitting  that  you  should  begin  the  study  of  mind  with 

the  examination  of  this  capability. 


CHAPTEK  I. 

ATTENTION. 

The  art  of  learning,  as  well  as  the  art  of  teaching, 
is  based  on  the  power  of  attention.  Few  problems  are 
too  difficult  for  the  student  who  can  concentrate  upon 
them  all  his  energies.  Kight  study  and  true  teaching 
develop  the  power  and  the  habit  of  complete  attention. 

Analysis  of  Acts  of  Attention. — Attention !  Examine 
these  crystals.  You  tell  me  that  each  is  a  cube,  that 
some  have  beveled  corners,  and  that  the  mineral  is  lead, 
'Now  examine  these.  You  turn  away  from  the  lead  crys- 
tals, and  fix  your  mind  on  these  new  forms.  You  tell  me 
that  each  is  a  hexagon,  and  that  the  mineral  is  graphite. 
You  find  that  you  can  direct  your  own  efforts.  You 
can  place  your  mind  on  one  object,  can  examine  it  for 
a  time,  and  can  turn  to  something  else.  The  capability 
of  self  thus  to  direct  his  efforts  is  called  Attention. 


ATTENTION.  5 

Office  of  Attention, — The  special  work  of  a  capabil- 
ity of  the  mind  is  called  its  office ;  as,  the  office  of 
memory  is  recalling.  Self-direction,  or  concentration, 
is  the  office  of  attention.  Yom*  analysis  gives  you 
three  forms  of  attention  : 

1.  Self^  as  attention^  concentrates  his  efforts.  Ex- 
amine the  word  attend  (ad^  to ;  tendo^  I  stretch).  You 
get  the  idea  of  turning  to  something  and  Hxing  all 
your  energies  upon  it.  You  throw  your  powei*s  of 
body  and  mind  into  the  work.  As  the  burning-glass 
concentrates  all  the  rays  of  the  sun  upon  a  single  point, 
so  you  concentrate  all  your  powers  upon  the  matter 
in  hand. 

2.  Self^  as  attention^  prolongs  his  efforts.  The  prob- 
lem can  not  be  solved  in  a  moment.  You  bend  all 
your  energies  to  its  mastery ;  you  drive  out  other 
thoughts ;  you  refuse  to  be  interrupted ;  you  hold 
yourself  to  the  work.  After  hours  of  mighty  effort, 
you  exclaim,  "  I  have  found  it ! "  This  is  study. 
Dreamers  do  not  learn.  Truth  opens  her  doors  to 
those  only  who  knock  hard  and  long. 

3.  SeJf,  as  attention^  changes  his  efforts.  Frequent 
change  is  a  physical  necessity.  Great  mental  efforts 
exhaust  the  portion  of  the  brain  most  used.  After  two 
hours  devoted  to  mathematics,  and  a  rest  of  twenty 
minutes,  you  turn  with  fresh  vigor  to  natural  science. 
Versatility  is  as  necessary  as  concentration. 

Were  the  mind  a  ship,  Attention  would  be  the  captain ;  were 
the  mind  an  army,  Attention  would  be  the  general :  were  the  mind 
a  school,  Attention  would  be  the  teacher.  In  figures  such  as  these 
the  comparison  must  be  limited  to  the  capability  of  self  to  concen- 
trate, prolong,  and  change  his  eflForts.  Attention  is  one  species  of 
self-direction.    Self-direction  includes  much  more  than  attention. 


6  ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Characteristics  of  Attention.  —  Attention  is  distin- 
guislied  from  otLer  mental  powers  by  two  marked 
characteristics : 

1.  Attention  is  the  power  to  concentrate  effort.  Take 
away  this  power  and  the  soul  would  merely  drift,  and 
life  would  be  one  long  revery.  Man  would  be  an  idle 
dreamer.  Attention  is  our  ability  to  concentrate  our 
efforts.     "We  thus  gain  mastery. 

2.  Attention  accompanies  all  mental  activity.  Like 
memory  and  consciousness,  attention  in  some  degree  is 
present  in  all  knowing  and  feeling  and  willing.  It 
enters  as  an  essential  element  into  all  effective  mental 
operations.  There  can  be  no  distinct  thinking,  no  vivid 
feeling,  no  deliberate  action,  without  attention.  It  en- 
ergizes and  quickens  mental  effort. 

Attention  defined. — You  are  now  prepared  to  define 
attention ; 

1.  Attention  is  the  capability  to  concentrate^  prolong, 
and  change  effort.  Mind  is  both  self-acting  and  self- 
directing.  Thinking  is  self -activity ;  but  I  also  direct 
my  thoughts.  Attention  is  clearly  a  power  of  self- 
direction. 

2.  Original.  Write  a  brief  definition  embodying 
your  own  conception  of  attention.  The  definitions 
given  are  suggestive.  Your  definition  must  be  worked 
out  and  polished,  then  treasured  in  memory. 

Various  Definitions. — 1.  Porter:  Attention  is  our  power  to 
concentrate  effort.  2.  Sully:  Attention  is  the  power  of  active 
self-direction.  3.  Bascom  :  Attention  is  our  capability  to  direct 
and  handle  our  faculties.  4.  Rosenkranz  :  Attention  is  the  power 
to  adjust  self  to  the  object.  5.  Trumbull  :  Attention  is  the  ener- 
getic application  of  the  mind  to  any  object.  6.  Schuyler  :  Atten- 
tion is  the  concentration  of  the  thoughts  upon  a  given  phenomenon. 


ATTENTION.  >[ 

"Attention  is  self-activity.  It  is  tlie  will  acting  on 
tLe  intellect.  Attention  selects  one  special  field  and 
refuses  to  be  diverted  from  it.  It  neglects  all  else,  and 
returns  again  and  again  to  the  object  of  special  atten- 
tion. Attention  isolates  one  object  from  others,  and 
concentrates  effort  upon  it  to  the  exclusion  of  aU  other 
objects.  Isaac  Newton  ascribed  his  superiority  to  other 
men  in  intellectual  power  simply  to  his  greater  power 
of  attention."  "^ 

Kinds  of  Attention, — I  give  attention  to  the  rose. 
I  observe  its  color,  its  odor,  and  its  structure.  I  find 
that  I  can  direct  my  energies  to  the  mastery  of  the 
outer  world.     We  may  call  this  Outer  Attention. 

1.  Outer  attention  is  self  attending  to  external  things. 
Outer  attention  looks  to  the  world  of  sense.  When  the 
teacher  says  "  Attention ! "  she  usually  means  "  Listen  " 
or  "Look."  Objective  attention,  external  attention, 
and  outer  attention,  are  synonymous  and  simply  mean 
self  attending  to  the  external  world.  As  the  outer 
world  is  called  the  objective  world,  the  self-direction  of 
the  mind  to  outer  things  is  called  Objective  Attention. 

2.  Inner  attention  is  self  attending  to  what  is  going 
on  within.  I  concentrate  my  powers  upon  a  problem, 
upon  a  composition,  upon  a  desire,  upon  a  choice.  This 
is  inner  attention.  We  mean  by  inner  attention,  self 
attending  to  the  inner  world.  As  the  inner  world  is 
called  the  subjective  world,  inner  attention  is  called 
Subjective  Attention. 

3.  Objective  and  subjective  atfention.  We  fix  our  minds  upon 
the  rainbow.  We  observe  the  primary  and  secondary  colors.  This 
is  objective  attention.    Now  we  study  the  relations  of  colors,  the 

♦  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris. 


8  ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

laws  of  combinations,  etc.  "We  fix  our  minds  upon  our  acquisitions 
and  try  to  discover  relations.  Self  attends  to  his  own  products  and 
processes.    This  is  subjective  attention. 

Physiology  of  Attention. — The  brain  and  nerves  are 
tlie  physical  organism  in  connection  with  which  the  soul 
works.  Instinctively  man  and  brute  turn  the  sense- 
organ  toward  the  object,  the  sound,  the  odor.  Pro- 
longed attention  exhausts  the  physical  organism.  It  is 
physically  impossible  for  children  to  give  close  atten- 
tion for  a  long  period.  As  the  years  advance,  attention 
may  be  prolonged  more  and  more. 

Attracted  and  Purposed  Attention. — A  loud  sound, 
a  briUiant  object,  or  a  strong  odor  excites  the  sensor 
organs  and  attracts  attention.  Brute  attention  is  chiefly 
of  this  nature.  The  teacher  finds  it  necessary  to  attract 
the  attention  of  her  young  pupils.  She  finds  that  new 
objects,  sudden  changes,  and  striking  movements  arrest 
attention.  But  the  child  soon  develops  the  power  of 
purposed  attention.  Attracted  attention  is  merely  the 
sensuous  arrest  of  attention.  Sensor  affections  occasion 
attention. 

Reflex  and  voluntary  attention.  Reflex  action  is  destitute  of 
will-power.  Attention  means  power  of  self-direction.  Clearly,  the 
expressions,  reflex  attention  and  involuntary  attention,  are  unmean- 
ing and  misleading. 

Growth  of  Attention. — The  idiot  is  incapable  of  self- 
direction.  Because  he  can  not  attend,  he  can  not  learn. 
The  attracted  attention  which  he  seems  to  give  is  not 
concentrated  mental  effort.  Brutes  can  give  a  degree  of 
attention,  and  hence  can  learn  some  things.  The  child 
begins  to  notice  attractive  objects.  This  is  the  germ  of 
voluntary  attention.     We  can  not  fix  the  period  when 


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the  infant  begins  to  attend. 
When  a  few  weeks  old,  it 
recognizes  its  nurse.  When 
a  few  months  old,  it  recog- 
nizes many  objects,  but  can 
hardly  be  said  to  attend  be- 
fore the  fifth  or  sixth  month. 
The  child  learns  slowly  be- 
cause he  attends  feeljly  and 
but  for  a  very  short  time. 
The  boy  can  learn  more 
rapidly,  as  he  can  attend 
more  closely  and  for  a 
longer  time.  The  well- 
trained  youth  can  throw  his 
energies  into  his  work  for 
several  hours,  and  hence 
can  do  much  more  than  the 
boy.  The  educated  man  can 
do  vastly  more  than  the 
youth  because  he  can  con- 
centrate his  entire  energies 
for  many  hours.  At  twenty, 
attention  is  fully  active,  but 
may  grow  more  and  more 
vigorous  up  to  the  meridian 
of  life. 

These  familiar  facts  in- 
dicate the  slow  but  gradual 
growth  of  attention,  as  well 
as  its  relation  to  achieve- 
ment. 


10         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Education  of  Attention.* — Teacliing  is  the  art  of  pro- 
moting human  growtli.  The  mother  lays  the  founda- 
tion on  which  the  teacher  builds.  She  supplies  her 
little  Kindergarten  with  attractive  objects.  In  a  thous- 
and ingenious  ways  she  manages  to  draw  and  hold  the 
attention  of  her  budding  loved  ones.  The  teacher  con- 
tinues the  same  line  of  w^ork.  She  will  spare  no  effort 
to  win  the  interested  attention  of  her  young  pupils. 
Each  exercise  will  be  so  conducted  as  to  develop  tho 
power  and  the  habit  of  attention. 

Well-directed  effort  in  concentrating  the  mind  upon 
the  work  in  hand  develops  the  power  of  attention.  You 
try  to  give  your  entire  attention  for  a  short  time  daily 
to  some  subject.  In  a  few  months  you  find  that  you 
can  attend  more  closely  and  for  a  longer  time.  When 
you  can  attend  completely,  your  power  of  attention  is 
educated. 

Attention  and  Learning. — The  drill  will  not  pene- 
trate the  granite  unless  kept  to  the  work  hour  after 
hour.  The  mind  will  not  penetrate  the  secrets  of  science 
unless  held  long  and  vigorously  to  the  work  in  hand. 
Agassiz  insisted  on  a  radical  reform  in  all  our  systems 
of  education.  His  students  came  to  him  so  deficient  in 
the  power  of  penetrating  observation  that  they  could 
not  learn  science  until  educated  to  observe.  This  great 
naturalist  considered  the  development  of  attention  as 
paramount  in  education.  Dickens  considered  his  power 
of  attention  the  secret  of  all  his  achievements.  Hard 
work  fosters  genius ;  but  only  well-directed  and  persist- 
ent effort  counts.  The  sun's  rays  bum  only  when  con- 
centrated.   Self  achieves  mastery  only  when  he  hurls  all 

*  See  "Applied  Psychology"  ;  also,  Sully's  "Psychology." 


ATTENTION.  H 

his  forces  upon  one  point.  "  Scatter-brained "  rough- 
ly characterizes  the  large  class  of  half-idiots  who  can  not 
learn  because  they  can  not  give  close  and  continued  at- 
tention. Who  has  sinned — these  stupid  pupils,  or  their 
more  stupid  teachers  ? 

Attention  and  Retention.  —  Good  memory  means 
close  and  continued  attention.  You  become  intensely 
interested  in  your  history  lesson ;  you  bend  all  your 
powers  to  its  mastery.  You  close  your  eyes  and  think 
it  over.  You  fix  your  mind  on  the  facts  in  their  rela- 
tions. You  in  this  way  deeply  impress  the  lesson  upon 
your  memory,  and  you  will  be  able  to  recall  it  read- 
ily. When  there  is  sHght  attention,  as  in  revery  or 
half-study,  the  slight  impressions  speedily  fade  away. 
Attending  is  work.  Lazy  persons  have  poor  memo- 
ries because  they  are  too  indolent  to  give  attention. 
As  a  rule,  interested  attention  and  good  memory  go 
together. 

Attention  and  Power.* — No  element  of  personal 
power  is  greater  or  more  potent  than  specialization.  No 
man  can  be  so  much  of  a  man,  in  any  one  direction, 
as  when  he  is  a  whole  man  in  that  direction.  He  who 
can  concentrate  his  whole  being,  all  his  energies  and  all 
his  capabilities,  for  the  compassing  of  the  one  thing  on 
which  his  mind  is  fixed  for  the  time  being,  is  obviously 
more  potent  in  behalf  of  that  object  of  his  endeavor 
than  would  be  possible  were  his  energies  divided,  and 
were  only  a  portion  of  himself  given  up  to  that  for 
which  he  is  striving.  And  this  power  of  concentration 
it  is,  that  makes  the  man  of  pre-eminent  practical  efii- 
ciency  in  any  and  every  sphere  of  human  endeavor — 

•  TrumbulL 


12         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

material,  mental,  and  spiritual — from  the  lowest  plane 
to  the  highest. 

Educational  Laws. — The  great  truths  relating  to  human  growth 
and  development  are  called  educational  laws  or  principles.  Thus 
early  you  have  discovered  some  of  these  fundamental  truths.  Far- 
ther on  these  laws  will  be  examined  and  applied. 

1.  Self-effort  educates.  The  soul  is  self-acting.  Spontaneously 
we  put  forth  effort.     All  development  comes  from  self-effort. 

2.  Strenuous  effort,  well  directed,  educates.  This  is  the  condi- 
tion of  all  improvement.     Directed  endeavor  develops  power. 

3.  Attention  energizes  mental  effort.  It  gives  vividness  and 
vigor.     The  inattentive  mind  drifts  but  does  not  achieve. 

4.  Achievement  is  in  the  ratio  of  concentration.  Effective  effort 
is  concentrated  effort.  The  narrower  the  field  of  attention  the 
greater  is  the  penetrating  power  of  the  mind.  "One  thing  at  a 
time";  " Concentrate  all  your  energies " ;  •' Give  your  entire  atten- 
tion " ;  "  Do  with  all  your  might " ;  are  some  of  the  excellent  rules 
deduced  from  this  law. 

5.  Pleasure  sustains  attention.  Gentle  pleasure,  present  and 
prospective,  fixes  and  holds  attention.  Painful  study  repels  and 
dissipates  energy ;  pleasurable  study  attracts  and  sustains  attention. 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

What  do  you  do  when  you  give  attention  ?  Wiite 
an  analysis  of  an  act  of  attention.  What  do  you  mean 
by  the  office  of  a  faculty  ?  What  is  the  office  of  the 
heart  in  the  physical  organism  ?  Of  the  memory  in  the 
mental  economy?  What  single  word  expresses  the 
office  of  attention  ?  Give  the  etymology  of  attention. 
Give  two  examples  of  concentration.  Give  an  exam- 
ple of  prolonged  attention.  Give  two  examples  of 
change  of  effort. 

How  do  you  distinguish  attention  from  memory? 
Give  two  characteristics  of  attention.     Give  examples. 


ATTENTION.  13 

Give  tlie  author's  definition  of  attention ;  give  yours ; 
give  Porter's. 

Give  the  distinction  between  outer  attention  and 
inner  attention.  Ilhistrate.  Give  your  reasons  for  using 
also  the  terms  objective  attention  and  subjective  atten- 
tion.    Give  five  examples  of  each. 

Why  should  prolonged  attention  not  be  required  of 
children?  Why  does  forced  attention  fail  to  benefit 
the  pupil? 

Why  can  not  an  idiot  learn?  Why  can  the  boy 
learn  more  than  the  child  ?  Tell  what  you  know 
about  the  growth  of  attention.  What  do  you  mean 
by  growth  ? 

What  is  teaching  ?  Describe  the  work  of  the  moth- 
er and  of  the  primary  teacher. 

Why  did  Agassiz  find  it  so  difficult  to  teach  science 
to  his  students?  What  do  you  mean  by  "scatter- 
brained "  ?  What  did  Dickens  consider  the  secret  of 
his  success  ?  Is  inattention  the  fault  of  the  pupil  or  of 
the  teacher? 

Why  have  inattentive  people  poor  memories  ?  What 
do  you  remember  best?  What  do  you  do  when  you 
give  attention  ?  Why  can  you  readily  recall  the  things 
to  which  you  give  great  attention  ?  HoW  can  you  culti- 
vate your  power  of  attention  ? 

Letter.* — I  venture  to  ask  you  to  write  a  letter  to 
some  friend,  telling  what  you  know  about  attention. 
Give  your  own  thoughts  in  your  own  way.     Nothing 

♦  In  a  long  experience  I  have  Becured  the  most  satisfactory  results  by- 
having  each  pupil  write  a  letter  to  some  interested  friend,  giving  his  notions 
about  the  faculty  discussed.  As  far  aa  possible  I  have  these  letters  read  in 
ciiiaa  and  criticised. 


14 


ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


will  help  you  more.  You  may  be  called  upon  to  read 
the  letter.  Send  with  your  letter  to  your  friend  a  top- 
ical outline  showing  your  analysis  of  this  chapter. 

Topical  Ai^alysis  of  Chapter  I. — Attention. 


Subjective  Attention. 
Change  of  effort. 


Sundry  definitions. 


Attracted  and  Purposed. 


L  Acts  of  Attention  analyzed. 

Objective  Attention. 
IL  Office  of  Attention. 

Concentration  of  effort. 

Prolongation  of  effort. 
IIL  Characteristics  of  Attention. 

Power  of  self -concentration. 

Active  self-direction  energizes  all  mental  action, 
IV.  Attention  defined. 

Author's  definition. 

Original  definition. 
V.  Kinds  of  Attention. 

Objective  and  Subjective. 
VI.  Physiology  of  Attention. 

Physical  limits  of  Attention. 

Vigorous  health  and  Attention. 

Rest  and  Attention. 
VTI.  Growth  of  Attention. 

Attention  in  childhood. 

Attention  in  boyhood. 
VIII.  Education  of  Attention. 

Teaching  and  Attention. 

Attention  and  Learning. 
IX.  Educational  Laws. 

Self-effort  educates. 

Strenuous  effort,  well  directed,  educates. 

Attention  energizes  mental  effort. 

Achievement  is  in  the  ratio  of  concentration. 

Pleasure  sustains  attention. 


Attention  in  youth. 
Attention  in  manhood. 

Attention  and  Retention. 
Attention  and  Power. 


INSTINCT.  15 

CHAPTER  11. 

INSTINCT. 

By  this  is  meant  the  capability  of  animals  to  do 
blindly  the  best  for  themselves.  A  mind  is  capable 
of  knowing,  feeling,  and  willing.  What  a  mind  can 
do  is  called  a  mental  power.  The  simplest  of  the  men- 
tal powers  are  the  guiding  impulses,  called  instincts.  It 
is  deemed  best  to  begin  the  study  of  mental  phenomena 
with  the  lowest  and  least  complex  manifestation  of  mind. 

Instinctive  Acts  analyzed. — We  are  wonderfully  fa- 
miliar with  brute-life.  The  cat,  the  dog,  the  bird,  and 
the  horse  are  our  intimate  companions.  From  infancy 
to  age,  brute-life  interests  us.  Even  Solomon  and  Aris- 
totle intently  studied  animal  life.  We  see  brutes  doing 
blindly  what  man,  with  ages  of  experience,  can  scarcely 
do.  The  bee  builds  a  perfect  cell  without  having  stud- 
ied mathematics,  and  compounds  delicious  honey  with- 
out having  studied  chemistry.  Birds  migrate  thousands 
of  miles  by  land  and  sea  without  chart  or  compass. 
The  animal,  without  knowing  why,  does  what  is  best 
for  itself.  The  blind  feelings  which  lead  animals  to 
act  for  their  best  interests  are  called  instincts.  Observe 
the  sitting  hen  :  at  regular  intervals  she  turns  her  eggs. 
Why  ? .  It  took  a  thousand  years  for  man  to  answer 
this  question.  The  hen,  without  knowing  why,  does 
the  right  thing.  The  blind  impulse  which  moves  the 
hen  to  thus  act  is  termed  instinct. 

Office  of  Instinct — Each  organ  of  the  body  and  each 
capability  of  the  mind  has  a  specihc  purpose,  called  its 


16         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

office.  The  office  of  tlie  stomacli  is  digestion.  The 
office  of  attention  is  self -direction.  The  office  of  in- 
stinct is  to  move  and  guide  animals  to  wise  ends,  where 
it  is  impossible  that  intellect  should  act. 

1.  Instincts  tend  to  the  physical  well-heing  of  the 
individual.  Spontaneously  the  young  animal  seeks  its 
proper  food.  Without  knowing  why,  squirrels  and  bees 
lay  up  stores  for  the  future.  Without  a  knowledge  of 
geography  or  climate,  birds  and  beasts  migrate  with  the 
season.  Inborn  feelings  move  and  guide  the  animal  to 
its  own  good. 

2.  Instincts  tend  to  the  well-heing  of  the  race.  The 
salmon  leaves  the  sea  and  ascends  the  river  to  spa^vn 
safely  in  shallow  water.  The  bird  conceals  her  nest. 
Even  lions  and  eagles  mate.  Strong  impulses  move 
animals  to  act  so  as  to  preserve  the  race.  These  blind 
impulses  are  termed  instincts. 

3.  Instincts  move  hrutes  to  fulfill  tJie  purposes  of 
their  creation.  Its  instincts  move  the  silk-worm  to  spin 
its  cocoon.  The  bee  is  moved  to  sip  sweets  from  every 
flower.  Its  instincts  move  the  coral  to  build  islands. 
Marvelous  chapter,  this,  in  the  book  of  Nature ! 

Characteristics  of  Instinct. — The  peculiarities  that 
distinguish  one  endowment  from  others  are  called  its 
characteristics.     How  may  we  know  instinct  ? 

1.  Instincts  are  Hind  hut  guiding  impulses.  Bees 
and  ants  organize  republics,  build  cities,  and  lay  up 
stores.  Without  knowing  the  principles  of  government 
or  architecture  or  political  economy,  they  wisely  adapt 
means  to  ends.  Blind  feelings,  implanted  by  Infinite 
Wisdom,  guide  as  well  as  move  them.  Instincts  are  the 
only  guiding  impulses. 


INSTINCT.  17 

2.  Instinct  is  a  perfect  guide.  An  instinct  is  in- 
nate and  perfect  from  the  first.  Intellect  liesitates  and 
blunders ;  instinct  advances  to  its  end  with  mechanical 
certainty.  Intellect  improves ;  instinct  is  practically 
stationary. 

3.  Iiistinct  is  conscious  activity.  The  bird  is  aware 
of  its  nest-building  impulses.  However  dim  in  the 
lower  orders  of  animals,  consciousness  may  be  safely 
inferred  wherever  instinct  is  manifested.  Instincts, 
therefore,  are  now  classed  as  mental ;  wherever  we  find 
instinct  we  find  mind.  The  plant  has  life,  but  not 
mind.  The  brute  has  life  and  mind,  but  not  self-con- 
scious personality. 

4.  Instinct  is  limited  to  physical  acti/vity.  Instincts 
are  mental  impulses  leading  to  physical  acts  and  phys- 
ical ends.  The  mother-impulse  in  the  bird  to  care  for 
her  young  is  mental ;  the  act  of  securing  food  and  feed- 
ing her  bird  lings  is  physical.  All  instincts  seem  con- 
nected with  the  perpetuation  of  organic  life. 

To  speak  of  moral  instincts  or  religious  instincts  is  clearly  in- 
correct.   Intellect  guides  beings  capable  of  moral  acts. 

Instinct  defined. — Instinct  is  feeling.  Like  all  feel- 
ings, instinct  is  blind ;  but,  unlike  all  other  feelings, 
instinct  guides.  Instincts  are  blind  feelings  implanted 
by  Infinite  Wisdom  to  move  and  guide  animals  where 
intellect  can  not  act. 

1.  Instinct  is  blind  impulse  guiding  to  wise  ends. 
Instincts  are  blind  impulses  to  adapt  means  to  ends 
without  knowing  why.  Without  either  knowledge  or 
experience,  the  young  bee  constructs  a  perfect  cell.  In- 
stincts are  blind  feelings  moving  and  guiding  to  wise 
ends. 


18         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

2.  Original.  Write  a  detinition  containing  your 
view  of  instinct.     What  does  instinct  mean  to  jou  ? 

3.  Various  Definitions. — 1.  White  :  Instincts  are  impulses  which 
prompt  and  direct  appropriate  action  in  the  absence  of  intelligence. 
2.  Romanes  :  Instincts  are  adaptive  impulses.  3.  Hopkins  :  Instinct 
is  regulative  impulse.  4.  Hamilton:  Instinct  is  a  blind  tendency 
to  intelligent  ends.  5.  Von  Hartmann  :  An  instinctive  act  is  one 
conformed  to  an  end  of  which  the  actor  is  not  conscious. 

Eeflex  Action  and  Instinct. — The  clock  marks  time, 
but  its  organism  and  action  are  wholly  mechanical.  The 
sensitiye-plant  responds  to  the  touch,  but  its  organism 
and  action  are  wholly  vegetable.  The  animal  perspires 
and  respires,  but  the  organism  and  action  are  wholly 
vital.  The  order  of  the  various  forces  is:  mechan- 
ical forces,  chemical  forces,  vital  forces.  Reflex  action 
is  a  vital  force.  Like  the  sensitive-plant,  the  lower 
nerve-centers  respond  to  stimuli  and  cause  motion. 
Where  the  stimuli  lie  within  the  body,  reflex  action  is 
called  automatic  action. 

1.  Reflex  action  is  unconscious  action.  Bound  up 
in  the  animal  are  forces  which  regulate  nutrition,  cir- 
culation,  respiration,  and  non-voluntary  motion.  But 
mind  is  wanting  in  such  acts.  These  actions  are  in- 
trusted  to  ganglia  and  nerves  and  tissues  which  re- 
spend  to  stimuli.  Reflex  action  is  devoid  of  will-power 
and  is  wholly  jphysical.  Animals  of  the  lowest  orders 
are  little  more  than  reflex  machines — they  are  nearly 
destitute  of  instinct  as  well  as  of  intellect. 

2.  Instinctive  action  is  conscious  action.  Reflex 
action  is  the  highest  physical  force ;  instinct  is  the  low- 
est mental  energy.  The  action  of  the  new-born  infant 
in  sucking  is  reflex  action ;  but  the  act  of  the  young 


INSTINCT.  19 

animal  in  seeking  food  is  instinctive  action.  Instinct 
moves  the  spider  to  spin  her  web  to  capture  her  prey  ; 
but  the  act  of  spinning  is  reflex.  Below  instinct,  no 
indication  of  mind  appears.  To  some  degree  the  ani- 
mal seems  to  be  aware  of  its  instinctive  acts,  but  is 
utterly  unconscious  of  its  reflex  acts.  Here  we  may 
venture  to  draw  the  line  between  the  physical  and  the 
mental.  Reflex  action  and  all  the  lower  forces  are 
wholly  physical.  Instinctive  action  appears  to  be  spon- 
taneous as  well  as  conscious  action,  and  hence  belongs 
to  the  realm  of  mind. 

Instinct  and  Intellect. — Instinct  is  blind  impulse 
which  directs  animal  action  in  a  way  beneficial  to  the 
individual  and  the  race.  Intellect  adapts  means  to 
ends  and  guides  the  feelings.  Bnites  and  men  are  en- 
dowed with  intellect  as  well  as  with  instinct.  Intellect 
enables  its  possessor  to  find  out  and  act  from  knowl- 
edge ;  instinct  moves  the  possessor  to  adapt  means  to 
ends  without  knowing  why.  Instinct  guides  the  mi- 
grating bird ;  intellect  guides  the  mariner.  Instinct 
guides  the  bee  in  constructing  a  cell ;  but  intellect 
guides  the  engineer  in  constructing  a  bridge. 

1.  A8  intellect  increases^  instinct  decreases.  Mol- 
lusks  and  still  lower  forms  of  animal  life  exhibit  in- 
stinct and  even  infinitesimal  intellect.  But  they  are 
little  more  than  creatures  of  reflex  action.  In  fact, 
many  orders  are  scarcely  more  than  automatons.  The 
bee,  the  ant,  and  the  spider  seem  most  gijted  with 
instinct.  They  also  exhibit  some  intellect.^In  birds, 
beavers,  dogs,  and  elepliants  we  find  instinct  decreasing 
and  intellect  increasing. 

2.  As  instinct  increases^  intellect  decreases.    The 


20 


ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


INSTINCT. 


elephant,  the  horse,  and  the  dog  manifest  considerable 

intellect,   but   much   less  instinct   than   spiders,  bees, 

and  ants.     As  we  go  down  the 

scale  we  find   instinct  increases 

just  as  intellect  decreases. 

3.  Man  stands  alone.  Intel- 
lect vastly  predominates  in  man ; 
instinct  in  brutes.  The  gap  here 
between  the  lowest  man  and  the 
highest  brute  is  immense.  There 
appear  to  be  many  missing  links. 
In  the  accompanying  dia- 
gram the  relations  of  instinct 
and  intellect  are  roughly  indi- 
cated. 

Man  was  created  in  the  rational  and 
moral  image  of  God.  Physically,  he  is 
separated,  by  a  great  gap,  from  all  the 
animals  nearest  to  him ;  and,  even  if  we 
admit  the  doctrine,  as  yet  unproved,  of 
the  derivation  of  one  species  from  another,  in  the  case  of  the  low- 
er animals,  we  are  unable  to  supply  the  "  missing  links "  which 
would  be  required  to  connect  man  with  any  group  of  inferior  ani- 
mals. Mentally,  the  gap  between  man  and  the  brute  is  practically 
infinite.  Those  who  deny  this  must  adopt  one  of  two  alternatives. 
Either  they  must  refuse  to  admit  the  evidence  in  man  of  any  nature 
higher  than  that  of  brutes — a  conclusion  which  common  sense,  as 
well  as  mental  science,  must  always  refuse  to  admit — or  they  must 
attempt  to  bridge  over  the  "  chasm."  as  it  has  been  called,  which 
separates  the  instinctive  nature  of  the  animal  from  the  rational  and 
moral  nature  of  man — an  effort  confessedly  futile.* 

The  Instincts. — Instinct  is  a  simple  mental  energy ^ 
as  gravity  is  a  simple  ph^/sical  force.     It  is  ever  the 


INTELLECT. 


*  Principal  Sir  J.  Wiiliam  Dawson,  C.  M.  G.,  LL.  D.,  F  .R.  S.,  Presi- 
dent of  the  British  Association. 


IXSTINCT.  21 

same  blind  impulse  moving  to  wise  ends,  and  nothing 
more.  But  the  instincts — the  promptings  of  the  in- 
stinctive energy — are  numerous.  These  may  be  classed 
as  strictly  brute  instincts,  as  instincts  common  to  brute 
and  man,  and  as  strictly  human  instincts. 

1.  The  hrute  instincts.  The  honey-making  instinct 
of  the  bee,  the  web- weaving  instinct  of  the  spider,  the 
nest-building  instinct  of  the  bird,  the  dam-building  in- 
stinct of  the  beaver,  the  migratory  instinct  of  many 
animals,  are  familiar  examples  of  strictly  brute  instincts. 
The  list  of  this  class  of  instincts  may  be  extended  Avith- 
out  limit.  Are  these  speciiic  brute  instincts  endow- 
ments or  developments  ? 

2.  Instincts  common  to  hrute  and  mxin.  These  also 
are  numerous.  Sex-instincts,  mother-instincts,  danger- 
instincts,  food-instincts,  etc.,  are  common  to  brute  and 
man. 

3.  Human  instincts.  Instinct  in  man,  as  in  the  brute, 
is  ever  the  same  blind  feeling,  guiding  actions  to  bene- 
ficial ends.  In  the  domain  of  instinct,  the  brute  stands 
vastly  higher  than  man.  The  human  infant  is  the  most 
helpless  and  dependent  of  all  young  animals.  It  takes 
long  years  for  us  to  learn  to  do  intellectually  what  the 
brute  does  instinctively.  Man  is  poor  in  instincts. 
Crying,  smiling,  frowning,  etc.,  appear  very  early  in  in- 
fancy, and  are  strictly  human  instincts.  The  student  is 
left  here  to  find  out  other  human  instincts. 

Origin  of  the  Instincts. — Few  questions  now  engage 
more  thought.  The  following  conclusions  are  believed 
to  be  safe : 

1.  Each  instinct  is  an  original  endowment.  In- 
stincts are  innate.     Evolution  modifies  but  does  not 


22         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

create.  All  organic  forces,  all  vital  forces,  all  mentaf 
energies,  are  inborn  endowments.  Instinct  uniformly 
tends  to  wise  ends ;  but  the  wisdom  is  back  of  the  law, 
back  of  the  energy.  The  brute,  without  knowing  why, 
adapts  means  to  ends.  This  blind  impulse  to  wise  ac- 
tion is  implanted  by  Creative  Wisdom. 

2.  Instincts  are  transmitted.  However  far  back, 
the  instinct-germ,  in  some  degree,  is  regarded  as  an  en- 
dowment. That  instincts  may  be  greatly  modified, 
and  that  modified  instincts  may  be  transmitted,  is  now 
science.  The  pigeon  is  endowed  with  the  homing  in- 
stinct, but  centuries  of  training  were  necessary  to  give 
us  the  carrier-pigeon.  The  pointer-dog  is  one  of  many 
good  ilhistrations.  The  striking  modifications  in  the 
instincts  of  domesticated  animals  is  the  most  famiKar 
proof.  "While  it  is  an  established  law  of  heredity  that 
like  tends  to  produce  like,  we  know  that  environment 
works  striking  modifications.  Man  trains  animals  on 
the  line  of  native  instincts.  This  is  the  only  improve- 
ment of  which  brutes  are  capable.  But  no  amount  of 
training  or  change  of  environment  can  produce  a  honey- 
making  quadruped ;  something  can  not  be  evolved  from 
nothing.  Given  instinct-germs  as  endowments,  and  the 
laws  of  heredity  and  evolution  may  account  for  all  modi- 
fications of  instincts  and  all  phases  of  instinctive  action. 

Beferences. — For  fuller  accounts  of  instinct  the  reader 
is  referred  to  "  Instinct  in  Brute  and  Man,"  Chadboume ; 
"Mental  Evolution  in  Animals,"  Komanes;  "Mind  in 
the  Lower  Animals,"  Lindsay. 


INSTINCT. 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

Beview. — Give  the  three  offices  of  attention.  Give  your  defi- 
nition of  attention.  What  distinction  do  you  make  between  outer 
attention  and  inner  attention  f  Why  is  it  so  difficult  to  teach  inat- 
tentive pupils?  Why  can  the  youth  do  more  than  the  child! 
Etc.,  etc. 

Give  an  example  of  instinct  that  you  have  observed.  Why  does 
the  hen  turn  her  eggs  f  Analyze  the  nest-building  instinct  of  the 
bird,  and  the  dam-building  instinct  of  the  beaver. 

Give  a  distinction  between  the  office  of  attention  and  the  office 
of  instinct.  What  do  you  mean  by  the  office  of  a  faculty  i  Give 
the  three  special  offices  of  instinct.  Illustrate  each  by  cases  you 
have  observed. 

What  do  you  understand  by  the  characteristics  of  a  faculty! 
Give  the  four  characteriotics  of  instinct.    Give  examples. 

Give  your  definition  of  instinct.  Why  do  you  prefer  it  to  the 
other  definitions! 

What  do  you  mean  by  reflex  action!  by  automatic  action! 
Give  distinctions  between  gravity  and  reflex  action ;  reflex  action 
and  instinct.  Give  examples  of  each.  What  do  you  understand  by 
unconscious  action  !  by  conscious  action  !  by  self-conscious  action  ! 

How  do  instinct  and  intellect  differ!  Give  five  examples.  Ex- 
plain the  diagram  showing  the  relations  of  instinct  and  intellect. 
Why  does  man  stand  alone  ! 

Name  the  three  classes  of  instincts.  Give  five  strictly  brute 
instincts ;  five  common  to  man  and  brute ;  five  strictly  human. 

Give  the  distinction  between  an  endowment  and  an  evolution. 
Is  the  honey-making  instinct  an  endowment,  or  the  hereditary  ex- 
perience of  the  race!  May  instincts  be  modified  by  experience! 
Illustrate  by  domesticated  animals.  Are  modified  instmcts  trans- 
mitted !  Like  tends  to  reproduce  like,  is  the  great  law  of  heredity : 
does  this  law  extend  to  mind  ! 

Letter.— You  may  now  write  a  letter  to  your  friend,  telling  him 
what  you  know  about  instinct.  Try  your  best  to  make  clear  to  him 
the  nature  of  this  wonderful  endowment.  Above  all,  give  him  your 
own  thoughts  and  your  own  illustrations  in  your  own  way.  Writing 
such  a  letter  will  lead  you  to  study  instinct  with  the  greatest  care. 
Inclose  with  your  letter  your  analysis  of  this  chapter. 


24         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


Topical  Analysis  of  Chaptek  II. — Ijststii^ct. 

I.  Analysis  of  Instinctive  Acts. 

Beaver  building  his  dam.  Hen  turning  her  eggs, 

II.   Office  of  Instinct. 

Individual  good.  Cosmic  good. 

Race  good. 

III.  Characteristics  of  Instincts 

Gruiding  impulses.  Conscious  activity. 

Limited  to  physical  activity.     Unerring  guide. 

IV.  Definitions  of  Instinct. 

Author's  definition.  Various  definitions. 

Original  definition. 
V.   Reflex  Action  and  Instinct. 

Reflex  action — physical.  Instinct — mentaL 

VI.  Instinct  and  Intellect. 

Instinct  decreases  as  Intellect  increases. 
Intellect  decreases  as  Instinct  increases. 
Instinct  predominates  in  the  brute. 
Intellect  predominates  in  man. 
VII.   Classes  of  Instincts. 

Strictly  brute  Instincts.  Strictly  human  Instincts. 

Common  Instincts. 
VIII.  Origin  of  Instincts. 
Not  organized  habits. 
Not  inherited  experiences. 
Instincts  are  endowments. 

Instinct  is  modified  by  experience  and  natural  selection. 
Modified  Instincts  are  transmitted. 


IMPORTANT  TERMS  EXAMINED.  25 

CHAPTEE  III. 

niPOETANT   TEEMS    EXA^nNED. 

Science,  in  our  times,  must  be  presented  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  people.  But  new  ideas  need  to  be  era- 
bodied  in  new  terms.  In  your  study  of  the  matter- 
world,  you  have  found  it  necessary  to  learn  new  terms 
to  express  your  new  acquisitions.  As  you  explore  the 
mind-world,  you  will  at  every  step  discover  ideas  new 
to  you.  For  their  expression  some  unfamiliar  terms 
must  be  used.  Easy  and  familiar  terms,  when  they 
express  the  ideas  exactly,  are  the  best ;  but  precision 
must  be  secured,  though  at  the  cost  of  thoughtful  re- 
search. The  effort  will  be  to  lead  you  to  form  clear-cut 
ideas,  and  to  give,  in  your  own  words,  clear-cut  defini- 
tions. "When  quari-ied  and  polished,  you  will  treasure 
your  definitions.  You  will  find  them  more  precious 
than  diamonds. 

In  order  that  you  may  begin  to  build  on  the  rock, 
you  will  find  it  best  at  the  outset  to  master  a  few  lead- 
ing terms.  In  each  case,  work  up  to  the  idea  before 
attempting  a  definition.  A  good  dictionary  is  indis- 
pensable. Study  the  etymology  and  history  of  the 
word.  Notice  its  uses.  Endeavor  to  grasp  its  full 
meaning.  Write  in  your  own  language  a  brief  defini- 
tion. Apply  the  definition  by  giving  your  own  expla- 
nation and  illustration.  Consider  as  suggestive  these 
brief  hints.  As  in  mathematics,  work  out  everj^thing 
for  yourself.  Mastery  characterizes  each  successful 
educational  step.     Only  weaklings  cower  and  turn  back 


26         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

in  tlie  face  of  difficulties.      Strenuous  and  persistent 

effort  educates. 

T    _,  (  Physical  Phenomena, 

1.  Phenomena. —  i  nir    ^  i  xn 

(  Mental  Phenomena. 

The  word  phenomenon  means  an  appearance,  and 

the  plural,  phenomena,  appearances.     The  rose  appeai-s 

red,  sweet-smelling,  soft.     I  appear  to  myself  cheerful, 

thankful,  hopeful.     Whatever  appears  to  us  is  termed 

phenomena. 

1.  Physical  Phenomena. — The  apple  appears  white, 
soft,  and  delicious.  The  cube  appears  to  have  length, 
breadth,  and  thickness.  Gold  appears  yellow,  heavy, 
and  malleable.  All  appearances  coming  to  us  through 
the  senses  are  termed  physical  phenomena.  Whatever 
of  matter  ajpjpears  is  called  jphysical  phenomena, 

2.  Mental  Phenomena. — I  perceive  the  beautiful  lily. 
I  remember  the  cheering  song.  I  discern  that  the  sum 
of  the  three  angles  of  a  triangle  is  equal  to  two  right 
angles.  I  grieve  over  the  loved  and  lost.  I  deter- 
mine to  study  psychology.  I  perceive  myself  remem- 
bering, thinking,  feeling,  and  choosing.  I  am  aware 
of  my  various  mental  acts ;  they  appear  to  me,  and 
hence  are  termed  mental  phenomena,  or  psychical  phe- 
nomena. Whatever  of  mind  appears  is  called  mental 
phenomena. 


II.  Noumena.* — 


„  ,  (  Matter. 

Substances,  |  ^.^^ 

and  fTime, 


Necessary  Relations. 

*  See  "  Noumenal-Perception,"  chap.  viii. 


Space, 
Causation, 
etc. 


IMPOHTANT  TERMS  EXAMINED.   .       27 

"We  mean  by  noumera  the  enduring  realities  wliich 
underlie  and  make  possible  phenomena.  Noumena 
condition  phenomena.  We  class  as  noumena  substances 
and  necessary  relations.  Appearances  are  phenomena ; 
the  realities  of  which  we  affirm  phenomena,  or  which 
make  phenomena  possible,  are  noumena. 

1.  Substances. — The  enduring  entities  which  under- 
lie phenomena  are  called  substances.  As  there  are  two 
kinds  of  phenomena,  so  there  are  two  substances. 

(1.)  Matter.  Glass  is  brittle,  hard,  transparent. 
These  properties  of  glass  are  termed  physical  phenom- 
ena. The  material  substance  of  which  we  affirm  brittle, 
hard,  transparent,  is  called  matter.  In  the  matter- 
world  we  find  extension,  weight,  impenetrability.  Mat- 
ter is  the  enduring  noumenon  of  which  we  assert  ex- 
tension, weight,  impenetrability.  The  noumenon^  or 
reality  of  which  we  assert  physical  phenomena,  is 
caUed  matter. 

(2.)  Mind.  You  remember  the  multiplication-table. 
You  write  essays.  You  hate  lying.  You  choose  truth. 
Whatever  it  is  that  does  these  things  is  called  a  mind,  a 
spirit,  a  soul.  The  enduring  self,  the  Ego,  the  nou- 
menon that  thinks,  is  called  a  mind.  I  am,  therefore  I 
think.  The  self  of  which  we  assert  mental  phenomena 
is  called  a  mind. 

2.  Necessary  Eelations. — That  substances  and  phe- 
nomena may  be,  time  and  space  and  causation  must 
be.  As  these  and  such  like  relations  are  necessary  and 
enduring  realities,  they  are  classed  as  noumena. 

I  Physical  Energies,  or  Forces. 
III.   Energies. —  -j  Soul-Energies. 

(  Divine  Energies. 


28 


ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


We  try  to  understand  the  dynamics  of  the  universe. 
"We  learn  to  call  the  energies  which  produce  changes, 
causes.  "  Force,  energy,  and  cause  are  not  identical  or 
equivalent,  though  they  are  synonymous.  Force  is 
used  to  signify  an  energy  that  requires  another  energy 
outside  of  it  to  incite  it  to  action,  and  still  another  to 
guide  it.  But  the  energies  of  the  soul  are  self-incited 
and  self-directed.  Self -related  force  is  not  thought  of 
when  we  speak  of  force,  and  hence  force  is  a  bad  ternj 
to  express  soul-energies." 

PYRAMID  OF  ENERGIES. 


/ 


^ 

s 


/ 


RENEWINQ. 

PRESERVING. 

CREATING. 


TriE  WILL  POWERS. 


THE  EMOTIONS. 


THE  INTELLECTUAL  FACULTIES. 


THE  PHYSICAL  FEELINGS. 


THE    INSTINCTS. 


CO-ORDfNATINQ'  FORCES— LFFE  FORCES 
(VEGETABLE  AND  ANIMAL.) 


AGGREGATING  FORCES— COHESION  AND  CHEMISM. 


COSMIC  FORCES— QRAVITJVTJON,  LIGHT,  HEAT,  ELECTRICITY,  ETC. 


It  is  extremely  difficult  to  arrange  the  soul-energies  from  the  stand- 
point of  cause.  Sell'  acts  spontaneously.  Strictly,  no  mental  act  is  caused. 
Sensor  excitations  occasion  sensations,  sensations  occasion  perception,  ideas 
occasion  emotions,  emotions  occasion  choice,  choice  occasions  action  ;  but 
the  series  is  of  conditions  and  not  causes.    Each  rational  mental  act  is  self- 


IMPORTANT  TERMS  EXAMINED.  29 

caused.  Then  the  marvelous  interaction  of  knowing,  feeling,  and  willing 
makes  the  task  doubly  difficult.  Feelings  not  illuminated  by  intellect  are 
blind  and  brutal.  Intellect  not  moved  by  feeling  and  directed  by  will  is 
effortless  and  aimless.  Choice  not  guided  by  intellect  is  irrational.  At 
best  the  arrangement  of  our  mental  powers  must  be  in  the  order  of  de- 
pendence ;  and  of  this  each  one  judges  for  himself  and  varies  the  arrange- 
ment accordingly. 

1.  Physical  Forces. — Bound  up  in  matter  are  the  stu- 
pendous energies  which  cause  perpetual  change.  We 
dwell  amid  whispering  breezes,  rippling  brooks,  heaving 
oceans,  and  revolving  worlds.  The  energies  which 
cauae  physical  changes  are  called  physical  forces. 

2.  Soul-Energies. — Minds  are  endowed  with  the  mar- 
velous energies  which  change  infant  Newtons  into  phi- 
losophers, and  savage  tribes  into  enlightened  nations. 
A  mind  is  seK-acting  and  is  a  self-cause.  Soul-energies 
are  self -in  cited  and  self -directed.  The  energies  which 
cause  mental  changes  are  called  soul-energies. 

3.  Divine  Energies. — Herbert  Spencer,  in  his  final 
summary,  says :  ^*  Amid  all  mysteries,  there  remains  one 
absolute  certainty:  we  are  ever  in  the  presence  of  the  Infi- 
nite and  Eternal  Energy,  from  whom  all  things  proceed." 

Unity  of  the  Universe. — The  pyramid  of  energies  may 
help  us  to  grasp  the  unity  of  the  universe.  Each  lower 
energy  is  involved  in  the  higher.  The  plant-unit  in- 
volves cosmic  and  co-ordinating  forces.  The  brute-unit 
involves  vegetable  life  as  well  as  the  lower  forces.  The 
human  unit  involves  the  animal  Ufe-forces  as  well  as 
all  the  lower  forces.  The  matter-world  is  a  unit.  All 
the  physical  forces  work  in  harmony  and  give  us  the 
reign  of  law.  So,  too,  the  mind -world  is  a  unit.  All 
the  mental  energies  work  in  harmony  and  give  us  men 
and  women,  society,  government. 


30         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY   AND  EDUCATION. 

In  our  times  it  is  not  difficult  to  complete  the  pyra- 
mid by  adding  Divine  Energies.  We  tlnis  reach  abso- 
lute unity.  All  substances,  all  forces,  all  laws  are  but 
expressions  of  the  Infinite  Will.  The  Divine  includes 
all  and  unites  aU.  The  universe  is  a  unit. 
/  Physical  Laws. 

TV.  Laws. —  <  Mental  Laws. 
(  Moral  Laws. 

The  whole  distance  through  which  a  body  falls  in  a 
given  time  is  equal  to  the  space  passed  through  during 
the  first  second  multiplied  by  the  square  of  the  time. 
This  is  a  uniform  way  in  which  the  force  of  gravity 
acts,  and  is  called  a  law  of  falling  bodies.  That  well- 
directed  effort  promotes  growth,  is  called  a  law  of  hu- 
man development.  A  uniform  way  in  which  an  en- 
ergy acts  is  called  a  law. 

1.  Physical  Laws. — We  speak  of  the  reign  of  law  in 
the  matter-world.  We  mean  that  the  physical  forces 
act  in  certain  fixed  ways.  We  observe  the  fall  of  the 
apple.  We  find  that  all  material  bodies  attract  each 
other  in  proportion  to  the  mass  and  inversely  as  the 
square  of  the  distance.  We  have  discovered  a  law 
of  gravity,  or  a  uniform  way  in  w^hich  the  force  of 
gravity  acts.  Law  reigns  in  the  matter- world.  The 
TTwdes  or  ways  in  which  physical  forces  uniformly  act 
are  called  physical  laws. 

2.  Mental  Laws. — We  notice  that  some  incident 
enables  us  to  recall  long-forgotten  events.  We  find 
that  present  ideas  tend  to  suggest  past  ideas.  We  have 
discovered  a  law,  or  a  uniform  way  in  w^hich  the  mem- 
ory acts.  Law  reigns  in  the  mind-world.  The  uniform 
ways  in  which  the  mind  acts  are  termed  mental  laws. 


IMPORTANT  TERMS  EXA'JI:;ED.  31 

(  Physical  Sciences, 

Y.  Sciences. —  •<  Mental  Sciences, 
(       etc. 

Science  is  more  than  classified  knowledge.  Take 
botany :  the  central  idea  is  plant-life ;  the  field  of  re- 
search is  plant-phenomena.  We  group  around  the  cen- 
tral idea  the  laws  of  plant- phenomena.  Under  these 
laws  we  arrange  principles,  facts,  illustrations,  applica- 
tions. We  thus  build  up  the  science  of  botany.  The 
systematic  arrangement  of  the  laws  of  phenomena  is 
called  science. 

1.  Physical  Sciences. — The  sciences  that  treat  of 
physical  phenomena  are  called  the  physical  sciences. 
Take  zoology :  the  central  idea  is  animal  life ;  the  phe- 
nomena of  animal  life  is  the  field  of  inquir3\  Around 
the  central  idea  we  group  the  laws  of  animal  phenom- 
ena. Under  these  laws  we  arrange  principles,  facts, 
illustrations,  applications.  We  have  created  the  science 
of  zoology.  The  systematic  arrangement  of  the  laws 
of  ^physical  phenomena  in  a  special  field  of  research  is 
called  a  physical  science. 

2.  Mental  Sciences. — The  sciences  that  treat  of  men- 
tal phenomena  are  called  mental  sciences.  A  mental 
science  is  the  systematic  arrangement  of  the  laws  of 
mental  phenomena  in  a  special  field  of  inquiry.  Take 
psychology.  Here  mental  phenomena  is  the  field.  The 
central  idea  is  mind.  We  discover  the  mental  powers 
and  their  modes  of  action.  We  arrange  around  the 
central  idea  the  laws  of  mental  phenomena.  Under  the 
laws  we  group  principles,  facts,  illustrations,  applica- 
tions. We  thus  form  the  science  of  psychology.  The 
9ijstematic  classification  of  the  laws  of  mental  phenom- 


YI.  Terms  designating  Sel£ — 


32         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

ena  is  called  psyGhology.  Take  education.  The  cen- 
tral idea  is  human  development.  The  field  is  the  phe- 
nomena of  human  growth  and  human  culture.  Around 
the  central  idea  are  grouped  systematically  the  laws  of 
growth  and  development.  Under  the  laws  are  grouped 
the  principles,  the  facts,  the  illustrations,  and  the  ap- 
plications. Thus  the  science  of  education  is  created. 
The  systematic  arrangement  of  the  Ioajos  of  the  phe- 
nomena of  mental  growth  and  mental  develojpment  is 
called  the  science  of  education, 

A  Mind. 

A  Soul. 

A  Spirit. 

An  Ego. 
,  A  Self. 

We  know  and  feel  and  will.  The  self  that  thinks, 
loves,  and  chooses  is  called  a  mind.  Mental  jphiloso- 
jphy  is  a  science  of  the  mind.  As  a  human  mind  is 
embodied,  it  is  called  a  soul.  Psychology  {psyche, 
the  soul ;  logos,  science)  is  a  science  of  the  soul.  Psy- 
chical means  pertaining  to  the  soul.  As  the  mind  is  a 
spirit  entity  capable  of  knowing,  feeling,  and  willing, 
it  is  also  called  the  spirit.  A  mind  is  sometimes  called 
a  spiritual  organism. 

*'  Is  mind  an  organism  ?  If  it  were,  could  it  possibly  be  im- 
mortal !  What  is  the  true  definition  of  organism  ?  The  body  is  an 
organism,  but  the  mind  is  something  above  organism.  In  an  organ- 
ism there  are  unity  and  variety  of  functions — this  is  probably  the 
reason  for  calling  mind  an  organism.  But  life  and  mind  are  dis- 
tinct; a  plant  lives  but  does  not  possess  mtn<?.  Mind  includes  all 
that  life  includes,  and  much  more.  In  an  organism  each  part  is  the 
means  of  realizing  every  other  part,  and  it  is  likewise  the  end  for 
which  every  other  part  exists.     Each  part  is  both  means  and  end  for 


IMPORTANT  TERMS  EXAMINED.  33 

every  other  part.     But  mind  is  whole  in  each  part.    It  is  an  indivisi- 
ble unit  in  knowing,  in  willing,  and  in  feeling." 

Mind,  soul,  and  spirit  are  now  used  in  literature  and 
science  as  synonyms.  Occasionally  we  find  mind  still 
used  in  the  sense  of  intellect.  Soul  was  formerly  used 
to  designate  animal  life  and  instincts.  Spirit  is  some- 
times used  vaguely  to  designate  something,  no  one 
knows  what,  different  from  mind.  But  these  distinc- 
tions are  now  practically  obsolete. 

To  the  scholar  as  to  the  millions,  the  self  that  knows, 
feels,  and  wills,  is  the  mind,  the  soul,  the  spirit. 

SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

Beyiew. — Give  a  distinction  between  attention  and  instinct. 
Give  the  office  of  attention  ;  of  instinct.  Give  the  characteristics  of 
attention  and  also  of  instinct.  State  the  relation  between  instinct 
and  intellect,  etc. 

Why  are  some  hard  words  necessary  I  How  do  you  work  out 
definitions  f  Give  the  etymology  and  meaning  of  phenomena.  Write 
a  definition  of  physical  phenomena ;  mental  phenomena.  Illustrate 
each. 

Why  is  the  unfamiliar  word  noumena  used!  Have  we  any  fa- 
miliar word  that  expresses  the  idea!  Write  a  definition  of  sub- 
stance; of  matter;  of  mind.  Give  a  distinction  between  phenom- 
ena and  noumena;  between  mind  and  matter.  Are  you  sure  you 
grasp  the  distinction  ? 

Give  the  synonyms  of  energy.  Write  a  definition  of  energy  in 
which  all  occur.  Write  a  definition  of  physical  force;  of  soul- 
energy.  What  relation  do  you  discover  between  the  lower  and  the 
higher  energies  t    Is  the  universe  a  unit  t 

Write  a  definition  of  laws ;  of  physical  laws ;  of  mental  laws. 
Give  a  distinction  between  an  energy  and  a  law.  What  do  you 
mean  by  laws  of  phenomena  t 

Why  is  mere  classified  knowledge  not  science!  Write  a  defini- 
tion of  science;  of  physical  science;  of  psychology;  of  education. 


34 


ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


Give  the  etymology  and  meaning  of  psychology,  psychological,  psy- 
chologist, and  psychical. 

Define  mind ;  soul ;  spirit ;  ego ;  self.  What  do  you  mean  by  a 
causa-sui  9  Show  that  a  mind  is  not  an  organism.  Give  distinc- 
tions sometimes  made  between  mind,  soul,  and  spirit.  Are  these 
terms  now  generally  used  as  synonyms  ? 


Topical  Analysis  of  Chapter  III. — Importan^t 
Terms  Examined. 


2.  Mental  Phenomena. 


Mind. 

3.  Cause  Relations, 
etc.,  etc. 


L   Phenomena. 

1.  Physical  Phenomena. 
II.  Xonmcna. 

1.  Substances. 

Matter. 

2.  Necessary  Relations. 

1.  Space  Relations. 

2.  Time  Relations. 

III.  Energies. 

1.  Physical  Energies,  or  Forces. 

2.  Soul-Energies. 

3.  Divine  Energies. 

IV.  Laws. 

1.  Physical  Laws.  3.  Moral  Laws. 

2.  Mental  Laws.  4.  Etc.,  etc. 
V.  Sciences. 

1.  Physical  Sciences. 

1.  Botany.  2.  Zoology. 

2.  Mental  Sciences. 

1.  Psychology.  2.  Education. 

3.  Etc.,  etc. 

YI.  A  Nonmenon  endowed  with  Sonl-Energies  is  called- 

1.  A  Mind.  4.  A  Self. 

2.  A  Soul.  5.  An  Ego. 

3.  A  Spirit. 


THE  SEN'SORIUM.  35 

CHAPTER  lY. 

THE   8KNS0RIUM. 

TVe  see  the  landscape,  hear  the  song  of  birds,  smell 
the  rose,  taste  the  orange,  touch  the  paper,  press  the 
hand  of  friendship.  Vibrations  caused  by  light  and 
sound  and  odor  and  flavor  and  contact  excite  the  organ- 
ism. The  mind  feels  the  excitation.  These  feelings 
are  called  sensations.  The  part  of  the  organism  thus 
excited  is  called  the  sensorium.  The  sensorium  is  here 
used  to  include  sensor  ganglia,  sensor  nerves,  and  sen- 
sor organs.  You  have  diligently  studied  the  body,  the 
organism  in  which  we  live  and  work.  You  will  now 
re-examine  the  brain  and  nerves  from  the  stand-point 
of  mind.  Here  you  find  the  bridge  that  connects  inind 
and  matter. 

A  Nerve-Cell  is  a  micro- 
scopic clot  of  gramdated 
gray  matter.  Each  cell  is 
inclosed  and  has  one  or 
more  connections.  The 
cell  substance  is  granular 
and  extremely  mobile.  An 
excitant,  as  odor- waves  or 
light-waves,  causes  molec- 
ular changes   in   the   cell- 

Bubstance.  The  conscious  feeling  of  the  excitation  of 
sensor  nerve-cells  is  known  as  sensation.  In  a  human 
brain  there  are  estimated  to  be  more  than  a  billion  of 
these  nerve-cells.* 

♦  By  pcrmutsion  the  above  cut  b  taken  from  Tracy's  "  Phyaiologf. " 


36         ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY   AND   EDUCATION. 

A  Ganglion  is  a  group  of  nerve-cells  connected  hy 
nerve -fibers.      Ganglia  have   nerve  -  connections  with 
other  ganglia.     The  gray  matter  of  the  brain  is  orguu 
ized  into  ganglionic  groups.     "  The  mind  uses  the  gray 
matter  in  some  unknown  way  to  aifect  the  body,  or  to 


gain  impressions  through  the  body."  Draw  a  group  of 
nerve-cells ;  connect  the  cells  as  you  do  the  cells  of  a 
battery ;  inclose  by  a  membrane ;  make  nerve-connec- 
tions with  similar  groups.  You  wiU  have  a  rude  pict- 
ure of  a  ganglion,  as  in  the  above  cut.*  Reflex  sensor 
ganglia  are  found  in  the  roots  of  the  spinal  nerves  and 
throughout  the  sympathetic  system. 

A  Nerve  is  a  white  connecting  cord  through  which 
nerve-currents  pass.  These  nerve-fibers  permeate  the 
system  and  form  the  white  matter  of  the  brain,  the 
spinal  cord,  etc. 

1.  Structure.  A  nerve  consists  of  three  parts  :  (1.) 
The  extenial  sheath,  a  transparent  membrane ;  (2.)  The 

*  Taken  by  permission  from  Bastian's  "  Brain  the  Organ  of  Mind." 


THE  SENSORIUM. 


37 


medullary  sheath,  a  white,  fatty  substance,  isolating  and 
protecting  the  nerve-axis;   (3.)  A  thin  thread  of  gray 


rawrga«!a?tfgg^«fiagamtsai«M8»fettapasaiiK^g^^ 


matter  called  the  axis.  The  axis  is  composed  of  minute 
fibrils.  Illustrate  with  a  common  lead-pencil — the  paint 
representing  the  extenial  sheath  ;  the  wood,  the  medul- 
lary sheath  ;  the  lead,  the  nerve-axis. 

2.  Office.  Kerves  transmit  vibrations.  Their  sole 
office  is  to  transmit  sensor  and  motor  molecular  waves. 
As  the  nerve-axis  conducts  the  vibrations,  it  may  be  con- 
sidered the  essential  part  of  the  nerve.  Like  telegraph- 
wires,  nerves  simply  carry  messages. 

3.  Classes.  Nerves  that  convey  impressions  from 
sensor  organs  to  sensor  ganglia  are  called  sensor  nerves ; 
as,  the  optic  nerves  are  the  sensor  nerves  that  convey 
impressions  from  the  eyes  to  the  optic  ganglia.  Nerves 
that  convey  motor  impulses  from  motor  ganglia  to  mo- 
tor organs  are  called  motor  nerves. 

The  following  classification  of  the  cerebro-spinal  nerves,  by  Dr. 
S.  S.  Laws,  is  simple  and  complete : 

Cerebro-Spinal  Nerves. — 


SENSORY   NERVES    IN    PAIRS: 

MOTOR    NERVES    IN    PAIRS: 

1.  Cranial.— \.  Olfactory. 

1.  Cramal.- 

— 1.  Oculomotorius. 

2.  Optic. 

2.  Patheticus. 

3.  Trifacial. 

3.  Small  root  of  V. 

4  Gustatory. 

4.  Abducens. 

5.  Auditor}'. 

5.  Facial. 

6.  Glossopharyngeal 

6.  Spinal  accessory. 

7.  Pnpumogastric. 

7.  Hypoglossal. 

2.  Spinal.— Z\  pairs  of  posterior 

2.  Spinal.- 

-31  pairs  of  anterior 

roots. 

roots. 

88  pairs  of  sensory  nerves. 

38  pairs  of  motor  ntrves. 

38         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

4.  Nerve-fibers  are  continuous.  Sensor  nerves  ex- 
tend without  break  from  sensor  organs  to  sensor  gan- 
glia. Motor  nerves  are  continuous  from  motor  ganglia 
to  motor  organs.  Let  silk  threads  represent  sensor 
nerves  and  cotton  threads  motor  nerves.  Trace  these 
threads  through  all  their  windings.  You  will  find  each 
continuous.     Nerves  do  not  divide  or  unite. 

Nerve  -  Currents.  —  Touch  a  warm  surface.  The 
stimulus  in  some  unknown  way  starts  nerve-currents 
which  move  through  tactile  nerves  to  tactile  ganglia. 
You  feel  the  dangerous  warmth.  You  will  the  with- 
drawal of  your  hand,  and  thus  start  currents  in  the  mo- 
tor ganglia.  The  motor  currents  move  through  motor 
nei  ves  to  muscles.  The  muscles  contract  and  thus  with- 
draw your  hand.  The  nature  of  the  change  produced 
in  nerve-fiber  by  stimulus  is  quite  unknown.  How 
matter  affects  mind  or  mind  matter  must  be  classed 
with  the  many  unsolved  problems  of  science.  But  sci- 
ence now  claims  to  have  demonstrated  that  (1)  sensor 
nerve-currents  move  at  the  rate  of  140  to  150  feet  per 
second,  and  motor  nerve-currents  about  100  feet  per 
second.  (2)  Stimuli  excite  vibratory  nerve- currents. 
A  wave  of  molecular  movement  passes  through  the 
nerve.  These  nerve-currents  are  the  only  media  of 
communication  between  the  mind  and  the  outer  world. 
(3)  Sensation  takes  place  only  in  the  sensor  ganglia 
found  in  the  gray  matter  of  the  cerebrum. 

A  Sensor  Organ  is  a  vital  mechanism  cajpdble  of  re- 
ceiving and  transmitting  sensor  vibrations.  Each  sen- 
sor organ  is  connected  by  sensor  nerves  with  its  sensor 
ganglia  in  the  surface  of  the  brain.  Take,  for  example, 
the  ojjtic  apparatus : 


THE  SENSORIUM.  39 


Objective  World  _  Q  +  j^^j  +  {^\  '  ^^^ 

Striking  the  retina  of  the  eye,  light-vibrations  in  some 
unknown  way  excite  sensor  vibrations,  which  move  in 
molecular  waves  through  the  optic  nerves  to  the  optic 
ganglia.  The  nerve-currents  agitate  the  optic  ganglia, 
and  the  mind  feels  and  interprets  the  vibratory  signals 
— sees  the  rising  sun.  The  ear  does  not  change  sound- 
waves into  sensor  waves,  but  in  the  ear  sound-waves  ex- 
cite sensor  waves. 

A  Special  Sense  receives  extra  organic  messages. 
The  world  of  color  and  form  comes  to  us  through  the 
eye ;  the  world  of  sound  through  the  ear ;  the  world  of 
odor  through  the  nose ;  the  world  of  flavor  through  the 
mouth  ;  the  world  of  touch  through  the  skin.  As  each 
of  these  senses  opens  to  us  a  special  world,  they  are 
called  the  five  special  senses. 

A  General  Sense  transmits  organic  sensations.  Con- 
ditions of  the  organs  of  the  body  come  to  us  through 
the  general  senses.  Sensations  of  indigestion  are  mes- 
sages from  the  stomach.  Toothache  is  a  message  from 
a  nerve.  Pain  and  comfort,  hunger  and  satisfaction, 
temperature,  and  so  forth,  are  some  of  the  messages  re- 
ceived through  the  fifteen  general  senses. 

The  Brain. — Organism  reaches  its  climax  in  the  hu- 
man brain.  A  human  brain,  it  is  estimated,  embraces 
not  less  than  one  billion  nerve-cells,  nor  less  than  five 
billion  nerve-flbers.  To  produce  an  imperfect  brain- 
map  has  required  ages  of  toil.  Much  remains  for  other 
ages  to  discover.  The  brain  and  its  connections  must 
continue  to  be  the  most  absorbing  field  of   scientific 


40    ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

research.  The  brain  includes  the  lower,  middle,  and 
higher  nerve-centers.  The  cuts  on  pages  40,  42,  and 
46  give  dijBPerent  views  of  the  brain. 

The  lower  nerve-centers  are  the  medulla  oblongata 
and  the  cerebellum.  Like  the  spinal  cord,  these  are 
reflex  and  distributing  centers.  Some  claim  that  the 
cerebellum  is  a  relaj-battery  to  enforce  nerve-currents. 
Others  claim  that  it  is  connected  with  the  co-ordination 
of  movements.  The  following  cut  represents  a  perpen- 
dicular section  of  the  brain  on  the  median  line."'*" 


The  middle  nerve-centers  a/re  the  pons  Varolii,  the 
cerebral  peduncles,  the  corpora  quadrigemina,  the  optic 
thalami,  the  corpora  striata,  etc.  These  ganglia  are 
geographically  central,  and,  as  all  messages  between  the 
outer  and  inner  worlds  seem  to  pass  through  these  cen- 

*  The  above  cut  is  taken  by  permission  from  iSastian,  p.  452. 


THE  SENSORIUM.  41 

ters,  they  may  be  considered  telegraphic  headquarters. 
Who  can  tell  what  changes  take  place  in  these  myste- 
rious centers  ?  Destroy  these  centers,  and  you  render 
sensation  as  well  as  voluntary  action  impossible.  Sever 
the  nerve-connections  between  the  tubercula  quadri- 
gemina  and  the  cerebrum,  and  vision  is  wholly  reflex. 
The  animal  is  utterly  unconscious  of  seeing. 

BemaxkB. — The  spinal  cord,  the  lower  nerve-centers,  and  the 
middle  nerve-centers,  with  their  nerve-connections,  make  a  wonder- 
ful organism  for  reflex  action;  but  it  is  only  a  machine.  When 
stimulus  falls  upon  the  appropriate  sensor  surface,  a  wave  of  molec- 
ular movement  is  sent  up  the  attached  sensor  nerves  to  a  nerve- 
center,  which  thereupon  issues  another  wave  of  molecular  movement 
down  a  motor  nerve  to  the  group  of  muscles  over  whose  action  it 
presides.  When  the  muscles  receive  this  wave  of  nervous  influence, 
they  contract.  This  kind  of  response  to  stimuli  is  purely  mechani- 
cal, or  non-mental,  and  is  termed  reflex  action.  Thus  far  we  fail  to 
find  mind.  Remove  the  cerebrum :  the  animal  may  still  show  re- 
flex action,  but  all  traces  of  mind  will  have  disappeared.  All  ac- 
tivity below  the  cerebrum  is  unconscious  activity,  is  non-mental.* 

The  higher  nerve-centers  are  the  cerehral  hemi- 
spheres. Here  is  the  border-land  where  mind  and  mat- 
ter meet.  The  soul  is  embodied ;  it  dwells  in  and 
works  in  connection  with  a  physical  organism.  In  man 
the  cerebrum  is  so  large  that  it  completely  fills  the  arch 
of  the  skull  as  far  down  as  the  level  of  the  eyebrows. 
The  two  hemispheres  of  which  it  consists  meet  face  to 
face  in  the  middle  line  of  the  skull,  which  runs  from 
the  top  of  the  nose  backward.  The  cerebrum  is  com- 
posed of  two  conspicuously  distinct  parts,  called  re- 
spectively the  gray  matter  and  the  white  matter.  The 
gray  matter  is  external,  enveloping  the  white  matter 

•  Uolbrook. 


42 


ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY   AND   EDUCATION, 


like  a  skull-cap,  and  is  composed  of  a  vast  number  of 
nerve-cells  connected  together  bj  nerve-fibers,  and 
forming  many  ganglia. 


Under  surface  of  the  brain,  showinar  the  ^reat  complexity  of  its  structure. 
At  the  lower  part  of  the  cut  is  the  cerebellum.* 

The  Cerebral  Ganglia. — The  locations  of  some  of  the 
ganglia  are  known,  but  the  construction  of  a  reliable 
cerebral  map  is  the  work  of  the  future.  A  classification 
of  cerebral  ganglia  with  reference  to  office  is  all  that 

*  Taken  by  permission  from  "  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene," 
Tracy,  Fig.  58,  p.  195. 


THE  SEXSORimf.  4^ 

is  here  attempted.    Such  a  classification  is  considered  suf- 
ficient both  for  psychological  and  educational  purposes : 

1.  The  sensor  ganglia  are  the  portions  of  the  cere- 
brum agitated  by  sensor  waves.  In  some  unknown  way 
the  mind  feels  these  excitations.  These  feelings  are 
called  sensations. 

2.  The  intellective  ganglia  are  the  portions  of  the 
cerebrum  connected  with  knowing ;  as,  when  we  per- 
ceive, remember,  think.  In  some  unknowTi  way  the 
mind  uses  these  ganglia  in  perceiving,  remembering, 
and  reasoning. 

3.  The  emotive  ganglia  are  the  portions  of  the 
cerebrum  called  into  activity  in  feeling;  as  when  we 
love  or  rejoice. 

4.  The  motor  gan-glia  are  the  portions  of  the  cere- 
brum excited  by  volition.  A  mind  is  a  creative  first 
cause,  and  originates  motion.  Self,  as  will,  starts  motor 
nerve-currents — in  some  unknown  way  excites  motor 
ganglia  and  thus  originates  motion. 

Remarks. — 1.  The  cerebral  hemispheres  are  duplicates.  Each 
is  complete  in  itself.  In  case  one  is  paralyzed,  the  soul  in  all  its 
powers  works  through  the  other.  The  right  hemisphere  is  connected 
with  the  left  half  of  the  body,  and  the  left  hemisphere  with  the  right 
half  of  the  body. 

2.  The  cerebral  ganglia  are  interconnected  by  nerve-fibers  so  as 
to  form  an  organic  unit.  Each  ganglion  supplements  all  other 
ganglia.  Thus  may  be  seen  the  unity  and  harmony  of  the  brain  and 
local  brain-centers. 

3.  Specific  mental  activities  occur  in  connection  with  specific 
ganglionic  areas.  Thus,  just  behind  the  forehead,  on  either  side,  we 
find  the  language  ganglia.  Injure  these,  and  we  are  unable  to  ex- 
press ideas  in  words.  The  location  of  the  special  sensor  ganglia  by 
Ferrier  and  others  seems  to  Ikj  now  accepted. 

4.  The  cerebrum  dominates.    Orders  issued  from  headquarters 

6 


44         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

take  precedence.  Reflex  action  becomes  the  servant  of  volition. 
Walking  is  ordinarily  reflex  action ;  but,  when  we  meet  obstructions, 
action  becomes  intelligent  and  voluntary.  Mental  life  is  connected 
with  the  action  of  the  higher  nerve-centers.  Only  when  the  cerebrum 
is  called  to  take  part  is  there  any  distinct  mental  accompaniment. 
The  cerebrum  thus  stands  in  relation  to  the  lower  centers  somewhat 
as  the  head  of  an  office  stands  in  relation  to  his  subordinates.  The 
mechanical  routine  of  the  office  is  carried  on  by  them.  He  is  called 
on  to  interfere  only  when  some  unusual  action  has  to  be  carried  out, 
and  reflection  and  decision  are  needed.  Moreover,  just  as  the  prin- 
cipal of  an  office  is  able  to  hand  over  work  to  his  subordinates  when 
it  ceases  to  be  unusual,  and  becomes  methodized  and  reduced  to  rule, 
so  we  find  that  the  brain,  or  certain  portions  of  it,  are  able  to  with- 
draw from  actions  when  they  have  grown  thoroughly  familiar. 

5.  Cerebration  is  merely  brain-action  in  knowing,  feeling,  and 
willing.  The  mind  perceives,  thinks,  acts  ;  but  it  works  in  connec- 
tion with  the  ganglia.  The  brain  produces  no  thoughts.  Uncon- 
scious cerebration  means  unconscious  mental  activity.  The  cere- 
bral ganglia  are  merely  the  instruments  of  mind. 

6.  Granglia  performing  different  offices  may  be  near  together,  as 
in  the  spinal  cord ;  while  ganglia  performing  similar  offices  may  be 
far  apart.     The  difficulty  of  constructing  a  cerebral  map  is  apparent. 

7.  We  do  not  understand  the  precise  nature  of  the  relation  of 
the  body  and  the  soul.  In  some  unknown  way  the  mind  uses  the 
gray  matter  of  the  brain  to  affect  the  body,  or  to  gain  impressions 
through  the  body. 


CHAPTEE  y. 

SENSATION. 

By  this  is  meant  the  capability  to  feel  sensor  excita- 
tion, as  in  seeing,  hearing,  and  smelling. 

Luminous  bodies  cause  vibrations  of  luminiferous 
ether.  Light- waves  strike  against  the  retina  of  the  eve, 
causing  sensor  waves ;    these  sensor  nerve-currents,  in 


SENSATION.  4,5 

molecular  waves,  flash  through  the  optic  nerves,  passing 
through  the  optic  thalamus,  and  the  tubercula  quadri- 
gemiua  to  the  optic  ganglia.  The  sensor  light-waves 
excite,  agitate,  or  affect  the  optic  ganglia  of  the  cere- 
brum. The  mind  feels  the  agitation  and  is  aware  of 
the  feeling.  This  conscious  feeling  of  sensor  excitation 
is  called  sensation. 

Reflex  Sensor  Action. — The  mind  in  sensation  is 
conscious  of  feeling  the  excitation.  Sensor  currents 
sent  back  from  reflex  centers  are  not  felt — do  not  oc- 
casion sensation.  Even  agitations  of  the  cerebral  sen- 
sor ganglia  do  not  necessarily  occasion  sensations.  The 
clock  struck  ten,  but  I  did  not  hear  it,  because  I  was 
absorbed  in  my  work. 

"  What  sees  is  mind. 

What  hears  is  mind ; 

The  ear  and  eye 

Are  deaf  and  blind." 

SENSORIUM  AND  3I0T0RIUE. 

U     SENSOR     llJ     SENSOR     V  I  J     SENSOR     [J 
'^    QANQLIA.    rV■^     NERVES.     jlS     ORGANS.    Pv  * 


^SPECIAL.  GENERAL. 

INTELLECTIVE     1/     \  ^^"'  MUSCLES, 

O.Jo.  ,.  A     i  EARS.  STOMACH, 

GANGLIA.  I  ^  H  ^Qgg^  LUNGS, 

MOUTH,  HEART, 

8KIN,  ETC. 


K 


EMOTIVE 
GANGLIA. 


J 


MOTOR  l/l   ;  MOTOR  I    i    J  MOTOR 

QANQLIA.         CT]  NERVES.  fTS  ORGANS. 


K 


46         ELEMENTAIY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


Diagram  of  the  sensori-motor  processes  of  cerebral  activity.  1,  optic 
thalamiis  with  its  centers  and  ganglionic  cells.  2,  corpus  striatum. 
3,  course  of  the  propagation  of  acoustic  impressions :  these  arrive  in 
the  corresponding  center  (4),  are  radiated  toward  the  sensorium  (5). 
and  reflected  at  6  and  6'  to  the  large  cells  of  the  corpus  striatum^  unci 
thence  at  7  and  7'  toward  the  motor  regions  of  the  spinal  axis.  8, 
course  of  tactile  impressions :  these  are  concentrated  (at  9)  in  the 
corresponding  center,  radiated  thence  into  the  plexuses  of  the  senso- 
rium (10),  reflected  to  the  large  cortical  cells  (11),  and  thence  prona- 
gated  to  the  large  cells  of  the  corpus  striatum^  and  tinally  to  the  clif- 
ferent  segments  of  the  spinal  axis.  13,  course  of  optic  impressions : 
these  are  concentrated  (at  14)  in  their  corresponding  center,  then 
radiated  toward  the  sensorium  (at  15) ;  they  are  reflected  toward  the 
largre  cells  of  the  corpus  striatum^  and  afterward  propagated  to  the  dif- 
ferent segments  of  the  spinal  axis. — (Luys,  "  The  Brain  and  its  Func- 
tions," p.  61.    Inserted  oy  permission.) 


SENSATION.  47 

The  Sensorium  and  the  Motorium. — Self  reigns  in  the 
cerebral  ganglia.  Here  he  receives  messages  and  issues 
his  mandates.  Mind  is  the  inner  world,  is  self.  All 
else,  even  the  sensorium  and  motorium,  is  the  outer 
world,  is  the  not-self. 

1.  The  sensorium  is  the  portion  of  the  nervous  or- 
ganism which  conditions  sensation,  and  in  common  use 
is  limited  to  the  cerebral  hemispheres.  It  is  here  used, 
for  the  sake  of  brevity,  to  include  the  sensor  organs, 
special  and  general,  the  sensor  nerves,  and  the  sensor 
ganglia.  As  sense-perception  occurs  only  in  connection 
with  the  cerebral  sensor  ganglia,  these  ganglia  strictly 
constitute  the  sensorium. 

2.  The  motorium  is  the  portion  of  the  nervous  or- 
ganism through  which  self  sends  messages  to  the  outer 
world.  It  includes  the  motor  ganglia,  the  motor 
nerves,  and  the  motor  organs  or  muscles.  As  voluntary 
motion  begins  in  the  motor  ganglia,  these  strictly  con- 
stitute the  motorium. 

3.  Intellective  and  emotive  ganglia  are  inserted  to 
give  completeness  of  outline.  These  are  the  cerebral 
ganglia,  in  connection  with  which  knowing  and  feeling 
occur.  It  is  important  to  note  the  nerve-connections 
between  the  various  ganglia.  Though  composed  of  a 
billion  nerve-cells  and  iive  billion  nerve-fibers,  the  brain 
is  an  organic  unit.  Marvellous  structure !  Truly  our 
bodies  are  fearfully  and  wonderfully  made  I 

Cerebral  Action — Sensor  Motor. — The  thoughtful  stu- 
dent will  linger  over  this  inside  view  of  brain-activity 
in  sensation  and  volition. 

Place  on  the  board  the  diagram  on  page  45  and  the  cut  on  page 
46.    Let  each  student  trace  sensor  stimuli  through  each  sensor  line 


48  ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


OPTIC  LINE. 


to  the  mind ;  also  trace  motor  stimuli  through  the  motor  apparatus 
to  the  outer  world.     Here  patient  work  will  reward  effort. 

The  Five  Special  Sensor  Lines  convey  impressions 
from  the  outer  world  to  the  inner  world.  They  are 
called  special,  because  each  line  opens  np  to  ns  a  new 
world.     Each  sensor  line  is  called  a  sensor  apparatus. 


SExVSATION.  49 

1.  The  optic  apparatus  consists  of  the  eyes,  the 
optic  nerves,  and  the  optic  ganglia.  Luminous  bodies 
produce  vibrations  in  luminiferous  ether.  Light-waves 
strike  the  retina,  causing  sensor  Ught-currents.  Mo- 
lecular light- waves  move  through  the  optic  nerves  and' 
agitate  the  optic  ganglia.  The  mind  feels  the  excita- 
tion, and  knows  that  it  feels  it.  The  soul  experiences 
the  sensation  of  light.  The  mind,  as  intellect,  inter- 
prets these  sensations ;  perceives  colors,  forms,  sizes. 

2.  2he  auditory  apparatus  embraces  the  ears,  the 
auditory  nerves,  and  the  auditory  ganglia.  Vibrations 
of  sonorous  bodies  produce  sound-waves.  The  clock 
strikes.  The  sound- vibrations  start  sensor  sound-waves 
in  the  ear.  The  sensor  waves  vibrate  through  the  audi- 
tory nerves  and  in  the  auditory  ganglia.  Self,  as  sensa- 
tion, feels  the  excitation — hears  the  strokes ;  self,  as  in- 
tellect, interprets  the  sensations — perceives  nine  o'clock. 

3.  The  olfactory  apparatus  includes  the  nose,  the  ol- 
factory nerves,  and  the  olfactory  ganglia.  Odor-waves 
caused  by  odorous  bodies  start,  in  the  nose,  sensor  odor- 
waves.  These  waves  vibrate  through  the  olfactory 
nerves,  and  produce  changes  in  the  olfactory  gang]ia. 
The  soul  feels  the  excitation — experiences  the  sensa- 
tions  of  odor ;  interprets  the  sensations — perceives 
sweet  odors. 

4.  Tlie  gustatory  apparatus  consists  of  the  mouth, 
the  gustatory  nerves,  and  the  gustatory  ganglia.  Contact 
of  the  gustatory  organs  with  articles  possessing  flavor 
excites  gustatory  nerve-currents.  These  currents  pass  in 
molecular  waves  through  the  gustatory  nerves  and  affect 
the  gustatory  ganglia.  The  conscious  affection  of  the 
gustatory  ganglia  is  the  sensation  called  taste.     Self,  aB 


50  ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

intellecf',  interprets  these  sensations — perceives  sugar  as 
sweet  and  grapes  as  delicious. 

5.  The  tactile  apparatus  includes  the  skin,  the  tactile 
nerves,  and  the  tactile  ganglia.  I  touch  the  paper  ;  the 
contact  starts  tactile  waves  which  vibrate  through  the 
tactile  nerves  and  in  the  tactile  ganglia.  The  soul  is 
conscious  of  the  excitation — experiences  tactile  sensa- 
tions. Tlie  soul  interprets  the  sensations — perceives 
the  paper  as  smooth. 

General  Sensor  Lines.— The  fifteen  general  sensor 
lines  carry  messages  from  the  organs  and  tissues  of  the 
body.  The  excitant  is  within  the  body.  For  illustra- 
don  we  may  take  the 

Muscular  line.  The  muscular  apparatus  embraces 
muscles,  muscular  nerves,  and  muscular  ganglia.  Be- 
sides their  contractile  office,  muscles  seem  to  be  sensi- 
tive to  pressure  or  straining.  The  nerves  which  convey 
from  the  muscles  to  the  muscular  ganglia  the  sensor 
waves  of  pressure  are  called  muscular  nerves.  We  feel 
sensations  of  pressure  or  weight.  It  is  still  questioned 
whether  the  muscular  should  be  classed  as  a  special  or 
a  general  sense.  The  student  is  left  to  study  out  and 
diagram  the  general  sensor  lines. 

Comparative  Psychology. — You  have  taken  a  lively 
interest  in  the  study  of  comparative  anatomy  and  phys- 
iology. I  trust  that  you  will  feel  a  still  deeper  inter- 
est in  comparing  human  and  brute  mind.  We  have 
no  sense  which  we  do  not  find  in  some  brute  ;  and  the 
senses  of  brutes,  so  far  as  we  can  judge,  are  affected  in 
the  same  way  as  ours  are,  by  the  same  objects.  They 
may  have  some  of  the  senses  more  acute  than  ours  are, 
but  they  differ  from  ours  only  in  degree,  as  the  senses 


SENSATION.  61 

of  men  differ  in  strength  and  delicacy.  Acuteness  of 
sensation  is  a  characteristic  of  the  lower  animals.  So 
far  as  we  know,  no  brute  has  a  sense  that  differs  from 
ours  in  kind.  If  we  judge,  as  we  do  in  every  other  case, 
it  must  be  plain  to  every  observer  that  brutes  have 
the  same  kind  of  enjoyment  and  suffering,  through  the 
senses,  that  men  have.  To  heat  and  cold,  hunger  and 
thirst,  food  and  poison,  sickness,  pain,  and  death  they 
have  the  same  bodily  relations  in  kind  that  we  have.* 

Education  of  the  Senses. — "The  senses  are  all  capable  of  being 
educated.  Our  tastes  may  become  more  delicate,  and  may  keep  us 
from  using  deleterious  food.  The  sense  of  smell  may  be  cultivated, 
and  add  to  our  enjoyments;  and  odors,  especially  by  means  of 
flowers,  may  be  provided  to  gratify  it.  Hearing  may  be  improved 
and  made  more  sensitive  and  accurate.  Music  is  a  source  of  pleas- 
ure, which  may  be  enhanced  until  it  becomes  elysian.  Feeling  may 
be  made  very  delicate  in  its  perceptions,  and  capable  of  distinguish- 
ing very  nice  differences  of  objects.  The  senses  of  pressure  and  of 
weight  may  be  so  trained  as  to  give  us  very  accurate  measurements. 
But  the  eye  is  the  most  intellectual  of  all  our  sense-organs,  enabling 
us  at  a  glance  to  take  in  the  vast  and  the  minute,  the  near  and  the 
distant. 

"  All  these  should  be  cultivated  by  training  in  the  family  and  at 
school.  Children  should  be  taught  from  their  earliest  years  to  use 
their  senses  intelligently  and  habitually.  They  should  be  encour- 
aged to  observe  carefully  the  objects  around  them,  and  taught  to 
describe  and  report  them  correctly.  It  has  been  said  that  there  are 
more  false  facts  than  false  theories,  and  this  arises  from  persons 
not  Ixjing  trained  to  notice  facts  accurately,  neither  adding  to  them 
nor  taking  from  them,  nor  gilding  them  by  the  fancy,  nor  detracting 
from  them  to  serve  an  end.  Pictures  and  models  are  used  very  ex- 
tensively in  modem  education,  and  serve  a  good  purpose,  as  they 
call  in  the  senses  to  minister  to  the  intellect.  But  the  things  them- 
selves are  vastly  more  instructive  than  any  representation  can  be. 
So  children  should  be  taught  to  use  their  senses,  especially  their  ears 

*  "See  Instinct  in  Animals  and  Men,"  Chadbourne. 


62    ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

and  their  eyes,  in  observing  the  objects  around  them,  and  the  events 
that  occur,  and  storing  them  up  for  future  reflection.  Plants  and 
animals  and  stars,  men  and  women  and  children,  fall  under  our  eyes 
at  all  times,  and  their  nature,  shapes,  and  actings  should  be  dili- 
gently scanned  for  practical  use  and  for  scientific  attainment."  * 

Physiological  Psychology.  —  Carpenter's  "  Mental 
Physiology,"  Wundt's  "Physiological  Psychology,"  and 
Kibot's  "  Empirical  Psychology  "  are  remarkable  works. 
The  latter  gives  an  account  of  German  investigation  in 
this  field.  These  researches  have,  for  the  psychologist, 
an  intense  interest.  They  throw  light  upon  the  con- 
scious acts  of  the  mind.  They  demonstrate  the  infinite 
importance  of  hygienic  living.  Even  their  failures  are 
invaluable.  The  true  psychology  gathers  up  the  facts 
of  mind  established  by  all  schools  of  investigators. 

The  investigations  of  physiologists  have  thrown  much  light  on 
the  manner  in  which  material  objects  affect  the  different  sense-or- 
gans, and  also  on  the  excitation  and  action  of  the  sensorium,  and 
especially  of  the  brain ;  but  they  necessarily  stop  with  sensorial  phe- 
nomena. It  is  impossible  to  cross  the  line  that  divides  the  physical 
and  the  psychical,  and  explain  physiologically  the  action  of  the  soul.f 

Body  and  Mind.:}: — "  A  human  being  consists  of  two  clearly  dis- 
tinguishable parts — body  and  mind,  or  soul.  The  body  has  its  dis- 
tinctive capacities  and  powers,  and  so  has  the  soul.  To  the  body 
belong  weight  and  extension ;  to  the  soul,  the  powers  of  knowing, 
feeling,  and  willing.  To  the  question.  What  is  the  soul  in  its  es- 
sence ?  we  may  return  the  question.  What  is  the  body  in  its  essence  ? 
The  one  question  is  as  easy  of  solution  as  the  other.  The  human 
mind  is  forced  to  assume  a  substance  to  which  belong  the  known 
properties,  or  powers,  of  matter.  In  like  manner  it  is  compelled  to 
assume  a  substance,  or  being,  in  which  exist  the  powers  of  the  soul. 
If,  then,  the  question  be  returned.  What  is  the  soul  ?  we  answer,  it 
is  the  part  of  man  that  has  the  powers  of  knowing,  feeling,  and 
willing." 

*  MoCosh.  f  White.  X  Larsin  Dunton. 


SENSATION.  53 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS, 

Review  — Qive  distinctions  between  phenomena  and  noumena ; 
force  and  l»^w ;  instinct  and  intellect.  Define  science,  education, 
psychology,  mind.     Etc.,  etc. 

Draw  and  describe  a  nerve-cell ;  a  ganglion ;  a  nerve.  Give  the 
office  of  nerves;  of  sensor  nerves;  of  motor  nerves;  of  afferent 
nerves ;  of  efterent  nerves.  Show  that  nerve-fibers  are  continuous ; 
compare  to  teleo^raph-wires.  Explain  the  meaning  of  nerve-cur- 
rents. 

Give  the  meaning  of  sense-organs :  of  terminal  organs.  Show 
the  office  of  sense-organs.  Give  the  distinction  between  the  special 
and  the  general  senses. 

Give  the  estimated  number  of  nerve-cells  and  nerve-fibers  in  a 
human  brain.  Name  the  lower  nerve-centers  of  the  brain;  the 
central  nerve-centers ;  the  higher  nerve-centers. 

Define  sensorium ;  what  does  it  include  ?  Define  motorium ; 
what  does  it  include  ?  Give  the  office  of  sensor  ganglia ;  of  intel- 
lective ganglia ;  of  emotive  ganglia ;  of  motor  ganglia. 

Place  on  the  board  a  diagram  of  the  sensorium  and  motorium, 
and  also  the  cuts  on  pages  46  and  48.  Trace  impressions  from  the 
outer  to  the  inner  world  through  each  of  the  special  sensor  lines. 

Describe,  give  office  of,  and  illustrate  the  workings  of  the  optic 
apparatus ;  of  the  auditory  apparatus  ;  of  the  olfactory  apparatus ; 
of  the  gustatory  apparatus ;  of  the  tactile  apparatus ;  of  the  muscu- 
lar apparatus.    Give  examples. 

Define  sensation.  Do  agitations  of  the  sensorium  of  which  you 
are  not  conscious  produce  sensation  ¥  What  is  it  that  hears  and 
sees!    What  is  reflex  action f  automatic  action! 

Why  should  we  spare  no  effort  to  keep  our  bodies  in  the  best 
possible  condition?    Why  is  it  criminal  to  violate  hygienic  laws? 

What  is  meant  by  comparative  psychology  f  How  do  brute  and 
human  sensations  differ  f 

Letter. — Tell  your  friend  some  things  you  know  about  the  sen- 
sorium and  sensation.  Dwell  upon  the  wonders  of  the  organism 
in  connection  with  which  mind  works.  Explain  in  detail  and  fully 
how  messages  pass  Ixitween  the  outer  and  the  inner  world.  Inclose 
your  outline  of  these  chapters. 


64 


ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


CopiCAL  Analysis  of  Chapters  IV  and  V.— 
Sensation. 


I. 

Nerve-Cells. 

Nerve-fluid. 

Ner\^e-force. 

1. 

Ganglia. 

Keflex  ganglia. 

Motor  ganglia. 

Sensor  ganglia. 

IIL 

Nerves. 

Structure. 

Classification. 

Office. 

Nerve-currents. 

V. 

Sense-Organs. 

Special. 

General. 

V. 

The  Brain. 

Lower  nerve-centers. 

Higher  nerve-centers. 

Middle  nerve-centers. 

VL 

Cerebral  Ganglia. 

• 

Sensor  ganglia. 

Emotive  ganglia. 

Intellective  ganglia. 

Motor  ganglia. 

vn. 

Definitions. 

Sensorium. 

Sensation. 

Motorium. 

VIII. 

Reflex  Sensor  Action. 

Automatic  action. 

Reflex  action. 

IX. 

Sensorium  and  Motorium. 

Explain  sensation. 

Explain  motion. 

,  X. 

Special  Sensor  Lines. 

Optic  apparatus. 

Gustatory  apparatus. 

Auditory  apparatus. 

Tactile  apparatus. 

Olfactory  apparatus. 

XL 

General  Sensor  Lines. 

Muscular  line. 

Thirst-line. 

Hunger-line. 

Digestive  line. 

Etc.,  etc. 

XII. 

Comparative  Psychology. 

XIII. 

Hygiene  and  Education  of  the  Senses* 

PART    II. 
THE  PERCEPTIVE  POWERS. 


CHAPTER  VI.— Sense-Perception,  or  Sense-Intuition. 

VII,— Conscious  Perception,  or  Self-Consciousness. 
Vni.  — NouMENAL  Perception,  or  Noumenal  Intuition. 

IX. —  pRtUiENTATION — GENERAL  ViEW. 


"       .  ^M  E-N  ,T'A  L  _-P-0,W  E  R  Sc^- 


.vi_^-^i 


SECOND    PART. 

PERCEPTIVE-KNOWING— THE  PERCEPTIVE  POWERS. 


SOUL-ENERGIES. 

Before  beginning  the  study  of  your  capabilities  in 
detail,  it  is  important  that  you  take  a  general  view  of 
your  powers.  To  aid  you  in  this,  the  soul-energies  are 
here  represented  by  a  tree.  "  Like  all  graphic  devices, 
it  represents  the  facts  only  approximately ^  It  is  earn- 
estly hoped,  however,  that  this  device  will  help  you  to 
gain  true  conceptions  of  the  human  soul. 

Soal- Energies. 

Knowing. 
Perceptive  knowing. 

1.  Sense-perception.  3.  Noumenal  perception, 

2.  Conscious  perception. 
Representative  knowing. 

4.  Memory.         5.  Phantasy.      6.  Imagination. 
Thought-knowing. 
7.  Conception.    8.  Judgment.     9.  Reason. 
Peeling. 
Instincts. 
Strictly  brute  instincts.  Strictly  human  instincts. 

Instincts  common  to  brute  and  man. 
Physical  feelings. 

Appetites.     General  senses.     Special  senses. 
Emotions. 
K&roistic  emotions.  Cosmic  emotions. 

Altruistic  emotions. 
Willing. 

Attention.  Action.  Choice. 


58         ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

The  one  soul  is  capable  of  acting  in  different  ways. 
These  distinct  soul-energies  are  called  capabilities,  or 
powers,  or  faculties.  SeK  is  an  indivisible  unit  in  know- 
ing, in  feeling,  and  in  wilHng.  A  faculty  is  simply  a 
method  in  which  the  mind  can  act.  With  the  tree  on 
the  opposite  page  in  view,  you  may  examine  carefully 
the  outline  of  soul-energies. 

Keep  constantly  in  mind  the  central  fact  that  the 
mind  is  one  and  acts  as  a  unit.  Each  capability  supple- 
ments all  other  capabilities.  "  The  soul  feels  while  it 
knows,  and  determines  while  it  feels."  As  you  study 
your  individual  powers  you  will  recur  often  to  this 
connected  outline,  and  thus  learn  to  view  each  of  your 
energies  in  its  relations  to  your  other  powers.  You 
will  learn  to  think  of  a  mental  power  as  merely  one  of 
your  capabilities. 

The  Perceptive  Powers. — By  these  we  mean  our 
powers  to  loiow  immediately.  We  know  at  once  that 
ice  is  cold,  that  we  are  glad,  that  things  exist  and  oc- 
cupy space.  We  do  not  need  to  reason  up  to  these 
ideas.  We  are  endowed  with  capabilities  to  know  some 
things  directly.  Our  powers  of  direct  insight  are 
known  by  the  following 


Names. — 


The  Perceptive  Powers. 
The  Presentative  Powers. 
The  Intuitive  Powers. 
The  Simple  Cognitive  Powers. 


We  behold  immediately  material  things  having 
qualities.  We  perceive  the  mountain  as  lofty  and  snow- 
capped. We  perceive  ourselves  recalling  and  reasoning. 
Our  capabilities  to  make  present^  or  to  know  immediate- 
ly, are  called  oxxr  presentative  powers.    As  we  know  di- 


SENSE-PERCEPTION.  59 

rectly,  or  intuitively,  we  call  these  faculties  our  intuitive 
powers.  As  perceptive  knowing  is  the  simplest  form 
of  knowing,  we  term  these  capabilities  the  simple  cog- 
nitive powers.  Cognize,  to  know,  cognition,  the  act  of 
knowing,  and  cognitive,  the  power  to  know,  are  valuable 
terms  in  mental  science. 

{Sense-Perception,  or  Sense-Intuition. 
Conscious  Perception,  or  Consciousness. 
Noumenal-Perception,  or  Noumenal-Intu- 
ition. 

That  he  may  explore  the  matter-world,  man  is  en- 
dowed with  se/nse-perception.  That  he  may  gain  self- 
knowledge,  he  is  endowed  with  conscious-perception,. 
That  he  may  cognize  the  world  of  necessary  realities 
and  thus  build  on  the  rock,  he  is  endowed  with  nov^ 
menalperception. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SENSB-PEECEPnON. 

By  this  is  meant  the  power  to  perceive  directly  mor 
terial  objects.  Self  as  sense-perception  stands  face  to 
face  with  physical  p?ienomena.  I  know  at  once  this 
tree  as  large,  green,  cone-bearing.  This  capability  is 
designated  by  the  following 

(  Sense-Perception,  or  Objective-Perception. 
Kamei. —  •<  Outer-Perception,  or  External-Perception. 
(.  Sense-Intuition,  or  Perception. 

Each  term  embodies  the  same  idea — self  endowed 
with   the  capability  to   know  immediately  the   outer 
6 


60         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

world.  Sense-percej)tiony  the  power  to  gain  knowledge 
throTigli  the  senses,  is  most  expressive,  and  is  now  uni- 
versally used.  For  brevity,  perception  is  often  used, 
but  is  indefinite. 

Sensation  is  the  power  to  feel  consciously  sensor  ex- 
citations. You  speak.  Sound-waves  vibrate  through 
the  air,  in  my  ears,  through  my  auditory  nerves,  in  my 
auditory  ganglia.  I  feel  the  excitation  ;  I  hear  you 
speak.  I  interpret  the  sensations;  your  words  are  to 
me  signs  of  ideas.  Self,  as  sense-perception,  interprets 
sensations — converts  sensations  into  ideas. 

Sensation  is  the  basis  of  all  knowing.  Without  sensations  there 
can  be  no  sense-perceptions.  Without  particular  notions  there  can 
be  no  general  notions.  In  order  that  sense-perceptions  may  be,  sen- 
sations must  be.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  all  our  knowing  begins 
with  blind  feelings.  Out  of  these  blind  feelings  we  make  our  sense- 
ideas.    Sense-perception  includes  sensation. 

Acts  of  Sense-Perception  analyzed. — Notice  carefully 
yourself  perceiving.  What  do  you  do  when  you  per- 
ceive ?  What  are  the  steps  in  acts  of  sense-perception  ? 
What  are  the  products  ?  Take  this  object.  You  press 
it ;  it  is  soft.  You  touch  it ;  it  is  smooth.  You  smell 
it;  it  is  fragrant.  You  drop  it;  the  sound  is  slight. 
You  see  it ;  it  is  white.  You  interpret  these  sensations, 
and  cognize  the  object  as  a  rose.  In  this  way  you  may 
profitably  examine  many  acts  of  perception.  You  find 
in  an  act  of  sense-perception  four  distinct  elements: 
sensation,  recalling,  perceiving,  and  self-perceiving. 

1.  Sensations  are  the  stuff  out  of  which  sense-ideas 
are  made.  The  blind  see  no  colors ;  the  deaf  hear  no 
sounds.  The  blind  gain  no  percepts  of  color;  the  deaf 
gain  no  percepts  of  sound. 


SENSE-PERCEPTION.  61 

2.  Recalling  other  experiences,  yoa  refer  your  sen- 
sations, immediate  and  revived,  to  the  object.  Yon 
perceive  the  fragrant  white  rose. 

3.  Perceimiig.  Fusing  the  sensations,  immediate 
and  recalled,  you  form  an  idea  of  the  object.  You  in- 
terpret your  sensations,  and  make  out  of  them  the  no- 
tion, this  soft,  fragrant  white  rose.  This  is  sense-per- 
eeiving. 

4.  Self -perceiving.  You  are  aware  that  you  perceive 
the  rose.  You  stand  face  to  face  with  material  objects. 
You  know  directly  self  perceiving  material  things. 

From  your  analysis  of  many  acts  of  sense-perception 
you  discover  the 

Office  of  Sense-Perception. — The  soul  is  a  unit,  but 
is  capable  of  acting  in  many  ways.  The  distinct  ways 
in  which  the  soul  can  act  are  called  soul-energies,  mental 
powers,  mental  faculties,  or  mental  capabilities.  Ojflce 
is  used  to  designate  the  special  work  of  a  mental  power 
in  the  mental  economy.  Self,  as  attention,  concentrates 
effort ;  concentration  is  the  office  of  attention.  Self,  as 
memory,  recalls;  recollection  is  the  office  of  memory. 
Self,  as  sense-perception,  interprets  sensations,  or  con- 
verts sensations  into  ideas;  interpreting  sensations  is 
the  office  of  sense-perception.  The  mind,  as  sense-per- 
ception, fonns  sense-ideas,  or  gains  a  direct  knowledge 
of  material  objects.  From  your  analysis  of  acts  of 
sense-perception  you  discover  the 

Characteristics  of  Sense-Perception. — This  power  of 
self  is  distinguished  from  all  his  other  capabilities  by 
marked  peculiarities : 

1.  Self  as  sense-j)€rception^  knows  intuitively  physi- 
cal phenomena,     1  know  the  board  is  black  because  I 


62         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

see  it  black.  I  know  the  sugar  is  sweet  because  I  taste 
it  sweet.  So  with  all  sense-knowing.  I  look  directly 
on  material  phenomena.  The  soul,  as  sense-perception, 
stands  face  to  face  with  the  outer  world.  I  know  im- 
mediately objects  as  extended  and  resisting.  I  do  not 
need  to  prove  to  myself  that  the  rose  smells  sweet ;  I 
know  it  intuitively.  I  know  the  wall  is  here,  for  I  see 
it  extended,  and  feel  it  resisting  my  efforts  to  pass 
through. 

2.  The  mind,  as  sense-perception^  is  limited  to  physi- 
cal phenomena.  A  being  endowed  merely  with  sense- 
perception  would  forever  remain  ignorant  of  self.  Self, 
as  sense-perception,  knows  physical  phenomena,  and 
nothing  more. 

3.  The  mind,  as  sense-perception,  gains  only  con- 
crete individual  notions  of  material  objects.  Beings 
not  endowed  with  other  powers  are  incapable  of  forming 
class-notions.  The  brute  perceives  individual  trees,  but 
is  incapable  of  thinking  the  many  trees  into  one  class. 

Definitions  of  Sense-Perception. — Self,  as  sense-per- 
ception, explores  the  outer  world.  Physical  phenomena 
come  to  us  vibrating  in  our  sensoriums.  The  soul  is 
aware  of  its  sensor  excitations,  and  assimilates  its  sensa- 
tions, immediate  and  revived,  into  notions  called  sense- 
ideas.  The  capability  to  convert  sensations  into  ideas 
is  termed  sense-perception. 

1.  Sense-perception  is  the  power  to  hnow  immedi- 
ately material  objects.  Strictly,  sense-perception  is  the 
power  to  Imow  immediately  physical  phenomena.  But 
sensations  are  signs  of  material  things.  The  mind,  as 
sense-perception,  translates  these  signs  into  notions  of 
things.     These  concrete  individual  notions  of  material 


SENSE-PERCEPTION.  63 

things  are  termed  sense-ideas.  Self  stands  face  to  face 
with  the  material  world — hence  knows  immediately, 
knows  intuitively  material  objects  as  having  properties. 
We  see  the  tall  tree,  not  the  abstract  phenomena,  tall. 
'We  perceive  noumena  as  well  as  phenomena.  We  gain 
a  knowledge  of  things,  not  of  mere  abstract  impressions. 

2.  Original.  Write  your  definition  of  sense-per- 
ception. What  does  it  mean  to  you  ?  Kemember  that 
what  others  have  thought  will  prove  beneficial  to  you 
only  as  it  leads  you  to  better  and  clearer  thinking. 

3.  Various  DefinitionB. — 1.  Sully  :  Sense-perception  is  the  power 
to  integrate  sense-impressions,  immediate  and  revived,  into  percepts. 
2.  Poeter:  Sense-perception  is  the  power  to  gain  a  knowledge  of 
material  objects  through  the  sensorium.  3.  Mahan  :  Sense-percep- 
tion is  the  faculty  to  apprehend  the  qualities  of  material  substances. 
4  McCosH :  Sense-perception  is  the  power  to  gain  a  knowledge  of 
things  affecting  us,  external  to  ourselves  and  extended.  5.  White  : 
Sense-perception  is  the  power  to  know  directly  present  and  material 
objects. 

Some  writers  seem  to  teach  that  self  as  sense-perception  knows 
directly  the  noumena  as  well  as  phenomena.  To  me  it  is  clear  that 
self  as  noumenal-intuition  perceives  substance  underlying  phenom- 
ena, while  self  as  sense-intuition  perceives  physical  phenomena  and 
nothing  more. 

Sense  -  Percepts. — The  ideas  we  gain  through  the 
senses  are  called  sense-ideas,  or  sense-percepts.  A  sense- 
percept  is  a  product  of  sense-perception.  I  sec,  hear, 
touch,  smell,  and  taste  this  orange.  The  idea,  this 
orange,  is  a  sense-percept.  Sense-percepts  are  our  ideas 
of  material  things. 

1.  Sense^ercepts  are  concrete  notions.  Concrete 
ideas  are  ideas  of  things  with  qualities.  The  notion, 
red,  is  abstract ;  but  the  notion,  this  red  rose^  is  a  con- 
crete idea— is  a  sense-percept. 


64:         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

2.  Sense-pereepts  are  particular  notions.  Fruit  is 
a  general  notion,  but  this  green  apple  is  a  particular 
notion — is  a  sense-percept.  Sensations,  immediate  and 
remembered,  are  the  materials  of  which  sense-percepts 
are  made.  Sense-percepts  are  our  concrete  individual 
notions  of  material  things. 

3.  Be-percejpts  are  remembered  percepts.  You  ob- 
serve the  ocean-steamer.  The  idea  thus  made  present 
is  a  sense-percept.  When  yon  recall  this  idea  and  thus 
make  it  present  again,  it  is  called  a  re-percept. 

Remark, — Some  critical  thinkers  limit  the  use  of  sense-percept 
to  the  product  of  a  single  sense,  and  call  our  ideas  of  objects  sense- 
concepts,  or  individual  concepts.  But  Sully,  McCosh,  Porter,  and 
others,  term  our  concrete  ideas  of  external  objects  sense-percepts. 
Percept  is  used  in  this  sense  in  literature  and  life.  A  concept  is 
always  a  class-notion,  but  a  percept  is  a  notion  of  an  individual 
thing. 

Direct  and  Indirect  Sense-Percepts. — I  see,  and  hear, 
and  feel,  and  smell,  and  taste  this  red,  dull-sounding, 
mellow,  fragrant,  sweet  apple.  I  thus  gain  a  direct 
sense-percept.  Ideas  gained  directly  from  sensations, 
immediate  and  revived,  are  direct  sense-percepts.  They 
are  also  called  original  sense-percepts.  But  my  idea  of 
the  distance  across  the  river  involves  judgment  and 
experience,  as  well  as  sensation,  and  is  an  indirect  sense- 
percept.  I  hear  sounds  in  a  distant  room  which  I  know 
are  caused  by  a  piano.  The  blind  substitute  touch  and 
hearing  for  sight.  We  learn  by  experience  to  know 
the  presence  of  musk  by  the  peculiar  odor.  By  expe- 
rience we  learn  to  locate  the  sense  of  smell  in  the  nose. 
Ideas  thus  gained  indirectly  from  sensations  are  indi- 
rect sense^ercepts. 


SENSE-PERCEPTION. 


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66         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Growth  of  Sense-Perception. — As  matter  is  endowed 
with  the  force  of  gravity,  so  mind  is  endowed  with  the 
power  of  sense-perception.  Infants,  idiots,  and  even 
the  lowest  orders  of  animals  give  indications  of  possess- 
ing rudimentarj  sense-perception.  Your  observation 
satisfies  you  that  sense-perceiving  is  one  of  your  first 
mental  activities.  Until  awakened  by  sensations,  the 
soul  in  all  its  embryonic  powers  seems  dormant.  Is  it  ? 
"Who  can  tell?  Life  is  the  deepest  of  all  mysteries. 
The  beginnings  of  soul-activity  are  shrouded  from  mor- 
tal view.  One  fact  is  now  unquestioned :  an  infant  is 
endowed  with  capabilities,  but  not  with  ideas.  All  ideas 
are  acquired.  In  early  infancy  the  babe  begins  to  take 
notice.  Slowly  the  child  gains  the  power  to  form  ideas 
out  of  sensations.  These  imperfect  early  notions  grow 
more  and  more  distinct,  and  the  little  one  learns  to  use 
words  as  the  signs  of  ideas.  We  usually  find  children 
under  two  years  of  age  actively  exploring  the  material 
world.  But  sense-perception  does  not  seem  to  reach 
its  greatest  activity  much  before  the  fourteenth  year. 
Between  the  ninth  and  fourteenth  years  this  power 
seems  to  reach  its  full  vigor.  In  boyhood  and  girlhood 
the  sense-world  fills  the  cup  of  joy  to  the  brim.  After 
that,  sense-perception  is  kept  vigorous  by  well-directed 
activity,  but  ceases  to  be  the  end  of  effort.  It  now 
becomes  a  means  to  higher  ends. 

Education  of  Sense-Perception.* — That  we  may  mas- 
ter the  outer  world,  we  are  endowed  with  sense-percep- 
tion. The  infant  makes  feeble  efforts;  the  child  be- 
comes more  and  more  capable;  the  boy  masters  in  a 
good  degree  objective  nature ;  the  youth  seeks  to  mas- 

♦fiee  "Education  of  Sense-Perception,"  "Applied  Psychology." 


SENSE-PERCEPTION.  67 

ter  and  classify  physical  phenomena,  and  thus  becomes 
familiar  with  physical  sciences.  Development  expresses 
the  change  from  the  feeble  infant  to  the  masterly  youth. 
Further  on,  this  topic  is  discussed  from  the  stand-point 
of  the  teacher.  Here  we  examine  it  briefly  from  the 
stand-point  of  the  student. 

1.  Hygienic  conditions/^  Mental  achievement  de- 
pends on  the  condition  of  the  brain.  Nothing  is  more 
certain.  High  success  is  impossible  to  individuals  or  to 
races  having  inferior  brains.  Physical  elevation  under- 
lies mental  elevation.  Perfect  health  gives  perfect  sen- 
sations. Perfect  sensations  condition  perfect  sense-per- 
cepts. Perfect  sense-percepts  are  the  basis  of  clear  and 
vigorous  thinking  and  efficient  acting.  Obedience  to 
hygienic  laws  is  therefore  imperative.  Brain-culture 
underlies  mind-culture. 

2.  Objective  basis.  All  knowing  begins  with  per- 
ceiving material  objects.  Words  are  signs  of  ideas 
already  in  the  mind.  "  Blue  "  is  empty  sound  to  the 
blind  boy;  the  idea  *'blue"  is  not  in  his  mind.  At- 
tempts to  understand  words  and  definitions  without  ideas 
are  about  as  successful  as  attempts  to  build  railroads  on 
clouds.  Only  through  the  senses  do  we  get  elementary 
ideas  of  the  world  around  us.  Words,  spoken  and 
written  and  remembered,  represent  these  ideas.  A  firm 
foundation  of  sense-knowledge  must  underlie  all  mental 
achievement.  Grasping  this  truth,  modem  education 
strives  to  build  on  the  rock  of  sense-experience. 

8.  Objective  teaching.^  •*  An  appeal  to  children's  own  observa- 
tion is  now  rightly  resorted  to  as  much  as  possible  in  every  branch 

♦  See  Baldwin's  "Art  of  School  Management,"  p.  63. 

♦  Sully,  "  Outlines  of  Psychology."  , 


68         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

of  instruction.  The  teaching  of  natural  science  sets  out  with  the 
object-lesson,  which  in  its  simplest  form  is  a  mere  exercise  of  the 
pupils'  observing  powers  in  noting  the  properties  of  a  thing.  What- 
ever the  difficulties  of  the  object-lesson,  nobody  really  doubts  that 
a  large  amount  of  valuable  knowledge  about  simple  substances,  as 
chalk  and  coal,  natural  forms,  as  those  of  plants  and  animals,  as 
well  as  art-products,  can  be  given  to  a  number  of  children  in  this 
way.  This  first-hand  knowledge  of  things  through  personal  inspec- 
tion is  worth  far  more  than  any  second-hand  account  of  them  by 
description.  While  the  senses  may  thus  be  appealed  to  in  almost 
any  branch  of  instruction,  they  are  far  more  concerned  in  some 
departments  than  in  others.  It  is  now  generally  admitted  that 
the  careful  and  thorough  study  of  one  or  more  of  the  natural 
sciences  supplies  the  most  efficient  means  of  educating  sense-per- 
ception." 

Comparative  Psychology. — The  life  of  the  brute  is 
distinctly  one  of  sensation.  Acuteness  of  sensation 
characterizes  the  brute,  but  in  the  proportion  that  their 
sensations  are  strong  are  their  perceptions  weak.  Mr. 
Darwin  says,  "  Sensations  brutes  have,  but  never  ideas." 
Brutes  lack  language  because  they  have  nothing  to  say. 
The  sense-impressions  of  the  brute  are  associated  and 
recalled ;  but  can  we  properly  call  these  impressions  and 
T'^-impressions  ideas?  Does  the  brute  so  discriminate 
and  assimilate  as  to  gain  clear-cut  sense-percepts  ?  We 
can  not  so  think.  The  brute  perceives,  but  its  percepts 
are  something  lower  than  ideas. 

SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

Beview. — In  the  mental  economy,  what  is  the  office  of  atten- 
tion f  of  instinct  ?  of  sensation  ?  Give  the  distinction  between  sen- 
sorium  and  motorium.     Define  soul,  psychology.    Etc. 

Give  the  meaning  of  sense-perception.  What  other  names  are 
applied  to  this  faculty  ?  Give  the  meaning  of  each  name.  Why  is 
sense-perception  preferred  f 


SENSE-PERCEPTION.  (59 

Give  the  meaning  of  sensation.  Draw  a  picture  of  tlie  auditory 
apparatus  and  explain  auditory  sensation.  Are  sensations  the  basis 
of  all  knowing  f 

Analyze  two  of  your  acts  of  sense-perception,  giving  the  four 
facts  you  discover.  Why  are  these  called  elements  of  sense-percep- 
tion! 

Define  faculty.  Are  power,  capability,  and  faculty  synonyms  I 
What  is  the  office  of  sense-perception  f  How  do  sensation  and  sense- 
perception  differ!  What  do  you  call  your  ideas  gained  through 
sense-perception  ! 

Name  the  three  characteristics  of  sense-perception.  What  do 
you  mean  by  characteristics  !  by  intuitive  !  by  concrete  ! 

State  and  explain  the  author's  definition  of  sense-perception; 
your  definition ;  Sully's  definition ;  McCosh's  definition. 

What  do  you  mean  by  sense-percepts!  Illustrate.  Give  and 
explain  the  two  peculiarities  of  a  sense-percept.  Out  of  what  do 
you  make  sense-percepts  !  Turn  to  diagram  and  cuts  on  pages  45, 
46,  48,  and  show  how  we  gain  optic  percepts,  auditory  percepts,  and 
tactile  percepts. 

Give  the  distinction  between  a  direct  and  an  indirect  sense-per- 
cept. What  is  understood  by  substitution  !  Place  the  diagram  on 
the  board  and  explain  the  mechanism  and  products  of  sense-percep- 
tion. 

Trace  the  growth  of  sense-perception.  What  does  development 
express!  Give  hygienic  conditions  of  sense-development.  Tell 
about  the  objective  basis.  What  does  Sully  say  about  objective 
teaching  ! 

Which  of  the  senses  seem  to  involve  all  the  others! 

Which  of  the  senses  are  active  in  the  dark  ! 

Do  our  senses,  or  our  perceptions,  give  us  complete  ideas  of 
things  ! 

Are  our  senses  reliable  !    State  your  arguments,  pro  or  con. 

Does  the  child  generally  apply  one  or  more  senses  to  an  object ! 

Does  he  exercise  the  faculty  of  perception  before  coming  to 
school! 

Letter. — You  may  now  give  your  friend  your  ideas  about  sense- 
perception.  Try  hard  to  make  each  point  clear  to  him.  Present  the 
plain  facts,  as  you  understand  them,  and  illustrate  from  your  own 
experience. 


70  ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Topical  Analysis  of  Chapter  VI. — Sensb- 

PERCEPTION^. 

L  Names. 

Sense-perception  and  sense-intuition. 

Outer-perception  and  external-perception. 

Objective-perception  and  perception. 
n.  Elements  of  Sense-perceiving. 

Sensations.  Perceiving. 

Recalled  experiences.  Self-perceiving. 

IIL  Office  of  Sense-perception. 

To  ideate  sensations. 
IV.   Characteristics. 

Acts  intuitively.  Limited  to  material  objects. 

Gains  concrete  ideas. 
V.  Definitions. 

Author's  definition.  Various  definitions. 

Original  definition. 
VI.  Kinds  of  Sense-percepts. 

Direct  sense-percepts.  Substituted  sense-percepts* 

Indirect  sense-percepts, 
VII.   Education  of  Sense-perception. 

Stages  of  growth.  Objective  basis. 

Hygienic  conditions.  Objective  teaching. 

VIII.  Laws  of  Sense-perception  Growth. 

A  good  brain  conditions  the  growth  of  sense-perception. 

Well-directed  effort  in  acquiring  sense-knowledge  devel- 
ops sense-perception. 

Objective  work  educates  sense-perception. 
IX.  Comparative  Psychology. 

Brutes  perceive.  Brutes  do  not  have  ideas. 


CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION,  OR  SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS.       71 

CHAPTER  YII. 

CONSCIOUS-PEBCEPnON,  OR   SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS. 

By  this  is  meant  the  power  to  jperceive  self-acting. 
We  Kve  in  a  wonder-world.  Beneath  us,  around  us, 
above  us,  are  the  earth  and  the  heavens  with  their  va- 
ried tenantry.  From  this  outer  world  come  to  us,  vi- 
brating through  the  sensor  lines,  marvelous  messages. 
Light  flashes  along  the  optic  line,  and  I  behold  a  world  of 
color,  form,  and  beauty.  Sound-waves  vibrate  through 
the  auditory  line,  and  I  live  in  a  world  of  speech  and 
song.  Flavor  and  odor- waves  come  to  me,  and  I  live  in  a 
world  of  grateful  food  and  sweet  odors.  Touch  moves 
his  magic  wand,  and  I  am  gratified  by  balmy  breezes. 
Endowed  with  sense-perception,  I  stand  face  to  face 
with  the  outer  world. 

We  perceive  also  an  inner  world,  and  find  it  lilce- 
wise  infinitely  wonderful.  This  new  world  is  called 
the  world  of  mind.  Self  imagines,  sympathizes,  wills. 
The  soul  perceives  itself  perceiving,  reasoning,  choos- 
ing. The  capability  to  perceive  self  acting  i£  called 
conscious-perception.  Endowed  with  this  power,  I 
stand  face  to  face  with  the  inner  world.  This  power  is 
designated  by  various 

Conscious-Perception. 
Conscious-Intuition. 
Self-Consciousness. 
Hanaea. —  -l    Consciousness. 

Inner-Perception. 
Subjective-Perception. 
Ap-Perception,  or  Internal  Vision. 


Y2         ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Inner-perception  and  onter-perception,  subjective- 
perception  and  objective-perception,  are  significant  and 
corresponding  terms.  As  all  perceiving  is  intuitive,  we 
call  the  power  of  immediate  insight  into  the  mind- 
world  conscious-intuition,  just  as  we  call  the  power  of 
direct  insight  into  the  matter-world  sense-intuition. 
Consciousness  and  self-consciousness,  however,  are  the 
commonly  accepted  names  of  this  faculty. 

Acts  of  Self-Consciousness  analyzed. — We  look  with- 
in and  see  seK  at  work.  I  perceive  myself  observing 
the  evening  star.  I  perceive  myself  grieving  over  the 
loved  and  lost.  I  perceive  myself  resolving  to  work 
more  systematically.  The  perceiving  of  self  as  beholding, 
grieving,  resolving,  is  an  act  of  self -consciousness.  In  such 
acts  we  discover  the  elements  of  an  act  of  consciousness. 

1.  Mental  jphenomena.  Mind  is  self-acting  and  al- 
ways acting.  As  mental  acts  appear — are  perceived  by 
the  soul — they  are  called  mental  phenomena.  The  ex- 
pression, mental  phenomena,  includes  all  knowing,  feel- 
ing, and  willing  of  which  the  soul  is  conscious.  Where 
there  are  no  mental  acts,  there  can  be  no  consciousness. 

2.  Self -consciousness.  There  never  can  be  an  ap- 
pearance unless  some  thing  appears.  Intuitively  we 
perceive  substance  underlying  phenomena.  You  ta^te 
the  sweet  apple,  not  abstract  sweetness.  You  see  the 
beautiful  picture,  not  abstract  beauty.  You  perceive 
intuitively  physical  substance  having  physical  powers  or 
properties.  So  you  perceive  yourself  thinking ;  you  do 
not  perceive  abstract  thought.  You  perceive  yourself 
rejoicing,  not  abstract  joy.  Intuitively  you  perceive 
self  exerting  mental  power.  As  you  perceive  yourself 
acting,  you  are  self-conscious. 


CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION,  OR  SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS.       73 

3.  Conscious^ercepts.  As  ideas  gained  throngli  the 
senses  are  called  sense-percepts,  so  ideas  gained  through 
consciousness  are  called  conscious-percepts.  Through 
consciousness,  directly  or  indirectly,  self  gains  its  ele- 
mentary knowledge  of  the  inner  world.  A  being  not 
endowed  with  consciousness  would  have  no  inner  world. 
By  analyzing  your  own  conscious  acts,  you  will  gain  an 
insight  into  the  mind-world.  Of  what  are  you  con- 
scious ?  What  is  it  that  is  conscious  ?  "What  are  the 
products  of  consciousness  ?  How  do  you  know  the  dis- 
tinction between  sensation  and  perception  ?  between  de- 
sire and  will  ? 

Office  of  Consciousness. — Mind  is  self-acting.  A  fac- 
ulty is  a  mode  of  self -activity,  and  is  merely  a  power  or 
capability  of  the  mind.  The  oflSce  of  a  faculty  is  its 
function  in  the  mental  economy.  Function,  office,  work, 
are  synonymous  terms.  Self  as  consciousness  perceives 
himself  acting ;  internal  vision  is  the  office  of  conscious- 
ness. The  work  of  this  faculty  will  be  better  under- 
stood by  a  more  minute  examination  : 

1.  Self,  as  consciousness,  intuitively  knows  his  own 
acts  as  his.  I  know,  I  feel,  I  will,  and  I  know  that 
these  are  my  acts.  As  outer-perception,  self  knows  im- 
mediately the  outer  world.  As  inner-perception,  self 
knows  immediately  the  inner  world. 

2.  Self,  as  consciousness,  perceives  himself  knowing, 
feeling,  wiUing.  We  behold  ourselves  choosing,  enjoy- 
ing, thinking.  We  gaze  directly  upon  self  acting.  Con- 
sciousness opens  to  as  the  inner  world. 

3.  Self  OjH  consciousness,  unitizes  his  experiences. 
Inner-perception  perfonns  an  office  in  our  mental  econ- 
omy similar  to  tliat  of  the  connective  tissue  in  our 


74         ELEMENT  A.TIY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

physical  economy.  The  one  gives  unity  to  onr  bodies, 
the  other  to  our  mental  acts.*  The  experiences  of  a 
long  and  eventful  life  are  woven  into  one  marvelous 
web.  Consciousness  gives  unity  to  mental  activity  and 
mental  achievement. 

Characteristics  of  Consciousness.  —  The  soul  is  en- 
dowed with  the  capacity  to  perceive  itself  remem- 
bering, repining,  resolving.  What  pecuKar  features 
mark  this  marvelous  power?  How  do  we  distin- 
guish self-consciousness  from  other  mental  capabili- 
ties? 

1.  Self^  as  consciousness^  heholds  himself  acting. 
Like  sense-knowing,  conscious-knowing  is  intuitive.  We 
have  direct  insight  into  the  workings  of  our  own  minds. 
Consciousness  is  the  mind's  eye,  or,  as  Wundt  terms  it, 
internal  vision. 

2.  Certainty  characterizes  conscious-hnowing.  I 
hnow  that  I  feel  disappointed.  I  know  that  I  intended 
to  tell  the  truth.  I  know  that  I  see  the  setting  sun.  I 
can  not  be  mistaken.  The  testimony  of  consciousness 
is  final.  /  Icnow  ends  controversy.  Consciousness  is  in- 
falUble. 

3.  Consciousness  attends  all  our  distinct  mental  acts. 
In  this  particular,  consciousness  resembles  attention  and 
memory,  but  differs  from  all  the  other  faculties.  When- 
ever a  thought,  a  feeling,  or  a  purpose  stirs  a  soul,  con- 
sciousness is  there.  Waking  or  sleeping,  self  seems  to 
be  ever  acting  and  ever  conscious.  Inner-perception,  it 
is  certain,  accompanies  all  distinct  mental  acts.  An  act 
that  does  not  occur  in  the  field  of  consciousness  is  not  a 
distinct  mental  act. 

*  Hopkins, 


CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION,  OR  SELF-OOISfiSCIOUSNESS.       75 

What  shall  we  call  the  operations  that  seem  to  be  constantly  go- 
ing on  in  the  secret  laboratory  of  the  mind  f  Is  it  true  that  the  soul 
in  its  secret  chambers  prepares  material  for  its  conscious  acts  f  Does 
the  conscious  spring  from  the  unconscious  1  Is  it  possible  for  science 
to  explore  the  hidden  springs  of  mental  life  ? 

4.  /  am  conscious  of  actual  and  jpresent  mental  acta 
(mly,  I  am  conscious  that  I  now  remember  my  mother's 
advice,  I  am  conscious  of  my  present  determination  to 
study  geology  next  year;  but  I  am  not  conscious  of 
past  or  future  experiences,  or  of  ideas  not  now  in  my 
mind.  We  are  conscious  of  our  representations  and 
determinations;  they  are  present  mental  acts.  I  am 
conscious  of  actual  and  present  mental  acts  only. 

Self-Consciousness  defined. — The  soul  perceives  itself 
acting.  We  intuitively  behold  the  inner  w^orld.  We 
know  ourselves  knowing,  feeling,  and  willing.  We  are 
endowed  with  the  power  of  direct  insight  into  the  mind- 
world  : 

1 .  Self-conscicncsness  is  the  capahilitij  to  perceive  self 
acting.  Consciousness  is  being  aware  of  mental  activity. 
In  psychology,  conscicmsness  is  commonly  used  in  the 
same  sense  as  self -consciousness.  Self -consciousness  is  be- 
ing aware  of  self  acting ;  the  brute  is  not  self-conscious. 

2.  Original,  Embody  your  notion  of  self-conscious- 
ness. What  does  consciousness  mean  to  you?  Have 
you  earnestly  watched  the  workings  of  your  own  mind  ? 
Are  your  notions  of  self-consciousness  clear  ^  Unless 
you  see  for  yourself,  books  and  teachers  will  not  avad. 

3.  Various  Definitions. — McCosh  :  Self-consciousness  is  the  power 
to  know  self  in  his  present  state  as  acting  and  being  acted  on. 
Hamilton:  Self-consciousness  is  the  power  by  which  we  apprehend 
Ihe  phenomena  of  the  inner  world.  Portee  :  Consciousness  is  the 
power  by  which  the  soul  knows  its  own  acts  and  states.    Schutleb: 

7 


76         ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY  AND   EDUCATION. 

Consciousness  is  the  capability  of  knowing  our  psychical  acts  and 
states.  Mahan  :  Consciousness  is  the  faculty  by  which  we  perceive 
the  operations  and  states  of  the  mind  itself.  White  :  Consciousness 
is  the  power  of  the  soul  to  know  self  acting.  Wundt  :  Conscious- 
ness, or  inner  vision,  is  the  capability  that  unites  all  psychical 
activity. 

Conscious-Percepts. — We  gain  our  elementary  ideas 
immediately;  hence  we  call  these  ideas  intuitions,  or 
percepts.  Self,  as  sense-perception,  gains  sense-percepts ; 
self,  as  conscious-perception,  gains  conscious-percepts. 
As  sense-perception,  we  know  directly  the  properties  of 
matter ;  as  conscious-perception,  we  know  directly  self 
acting. 

1.  Conscious-percejpts  are  concrete  notions  of  mental 
acts.  I  was  conscious  of  seeing  Mount  Washington.  I 
am  conscious  of  remembering  that  I  saw  Mount  Wash- 
ington. In  this  case  I  perceive  self  remembering,  not 
abstract  memory.  I  gain  the  concrete  notion,  this 
memory,  which  I  term  a  conscious-percept. 

2.  Conscious-jpercepts  are  individual  notions  of 
mental  acts.  I  am  conscious  of  this  feeling,  not  of 
feeling  in  general ;  of  this  judgment,  not  of  judgment 
in  general.  I  am  conscious  of  self  performing  a  single 
act.  The  individual  idea  thus  gained  is  a  conscious- 
percept.  I  feel  hopeful;  the  idea,  this  hoping,  is  a 
conscious-percept.  I  choose  peace ;  the  idea,  this  choos- 
ing, is  a  conscious-percept.  I  judge  that  man  is  mortal ; 
the  idea,  this  judging,  is  a  conscious- percept.  This  list 
may  be  extended  without  limit. 

3.  A  conscious-percept  is  a  concrete  notion  of  an 
individual  mental  act.  Take  away  sense-perception, 
and  the  outer  world  would  be  a  blank.  Take  away 
self-consciousness,  and  even  the  existence  of  an  inner 


CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTIOX,  OR  SELF-CONSCIOUSXESS.       77 

world  would  be  unknown.  Our  simple  cognitions  of 
ourselves  knowing,  feeling,  and  willing,  are  conscious- 
percepts.     Such  knowledge  is  called  self-knowledge. 

Attention,  Consciousness,  Memory. — I  attend,  am  con- 
scious, and  remember.  Self,  as  attention,  concentrates 
his  efforts  upon  the  theorem ;  self,  as  thought,  discerns 
that  three  points  not  in  the  same  straight  line  determine 
a  circle  ;  self,  as  memory,  distinctly  recalls  the  theorem  ; 
and  self,  as  consciousness,  perceives  himself  doing  these 
things.  I  am  fully  conscious  when  I  give  complete 
attention,  and  I  then  remember  distinctly.  When  I 
give  little  attention,  I  am  dimly  conscious,  and  I  re- 
member indistinctly.  Where  there  is  no  attention,  there 
can  be  no  consciousness.  Where  there  is  no  conscious- 
ness, there  can  be  no  recollection.  You  are  absorbed  in 
your  work;  the  clock  strikes.  As  you  were  not  con- 
scious of  hearing  it  strike,  you  can  not  remember  hear- 
ing it  strike.  Because  attention,  consciousness,  and 
memory  are  thus  interdependent,  some  writers  con- 
found these  faculties.  But  it  would  be  as  reasonable, 
in  my  judgment,  to  confound  the  digestive,  circula- 
tory, and  respiratory  organs  of  the  body.  No  soul- 
energies  are  more  distinct.  Self,  as  attention,  concen- 
trates his  efforts;  self,  as  consciousness,  perceives  self 
acting ;  self,  as  memory,  recalls  his  past  experiences. 

Growth  of  Self-Conscionsness. — The  child-world  is 
the  outer  world.  Outer-perception,  the  power  to  mas- 
ter the  outer  world,  is  now  most  active.  Object-lessons 
intensely  interest  the  little  ones.  The  child  is  dimly 
conscious.  The  little  one  attends  feebly,  and  hence 
consciousness  and  memory  are  indistinct.  As  the  child 
learns  to  attend  more  closely,  consciousness  and  memory 


78         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

increase  in  distinctness.  How  early  children  begin  to  be 
conscious  we  do  not  know.  During  the  third  year  the 
child  begins  to  use  intelligently  /,  m^,  my.  Before  the 
fifth  year  few  children  give  conclusive  indications  of  clear 
self-consciousness.  But  boys  and  girls  are  very  positive 
as  to  objective  knowing.  John  sees  the  horse  black,  and 
he  knows  that  the  horse  is  black  because  he  sees  him 
black.  In  youth,  self -consciousness  becomes  fully  active. 
Education  of  Consciousness.* — As  consciousness  enters 
into  all  our  knowing,  feeling,  and  willing,  it  develops 
incidentally  as  our  other  powers  develop.  The  growth 
of  consciousness,  up  to  fourteen,  is  promoted  chiefly  by 
incidental  effort.  Up  to  this  age  the  outer  world,  for 
the  most  part,  absorbs  attention  and  effort.  The  inner 
world  is  still  a  mystic  realm.  But  the  youth  begins  to 
feel  a  longing  to  explore  the  mind-world.  IS'ow  is  the 
time  for  direct  and  systematic  culture  of  consciousness. 
"We  do  not  find  it  easy  at  first  to  examine  mental  phe- 
nomena. In  fact,  we  meet  with  difficulties  at  every 
step  ;  but,  through  patient  effort,  we  learn  to  conquer. 

1.  We  tread  the  inner  courts  alone.  Hundreds  may 
observe  the  eclipse  of  the  sun.  The  mistakes  of  some 
may  be  corrected  by  the  keener  scrutiny  of  others.  Not 
80  in  the  soul-world.  I  alone  perceive  my  mental  acts. 
I  need  to  repeat  the  act  many  times,  to  guard  against 
erroneous  inferences. 

2.  We  are  conscious  of  mental  jphenomena  hut  for 
an  instami.  Physical  phenomena  stay  with  us,  and  we 
can  conquer  the  material  world  at  our  leisure.  Mental 
phenomena  linger  but  an  instant.     To  avoid  mistakes 

*  See  "Education  of  Consciousness,"  "Applied  Psychology  and 
Teaching," 


CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTIOX,  OR  SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS.       79 

we  must  repeat  the  act,  and  recall  in  memory  the  phe- 
nomena. 

3.  Young  persons  fed  like  strangers  when  they 
enter  the  inner  world.  Their  joiing  lives  have  been 
spent  in  the  world  of  sense.  Few  have  ever  lingered 
for  an  hour  in  soul-land.  When  they  enter,  every- 
thing seems  new,  and  their  inferences  are  liable  to  be 
far  from  the  truth  :  "  I  never  was  so  happy ! "  You 
are  conscious  of  feeling  happy,  but  the  inference  may 
be  false.  Often  and  often  you  may  have  felt  happier. 
You  will  constantly  mix  inference  and  consciousness. 
Consciousness,  but  not  inferelice,  is  infallible,  ^j  in- 
specting mental  phenomena  with  the  same  care  that 
you  have  inspected  physical  phenomena,  you  will  de- 
velop your  power  of  inner- vision. 

Comparative  Psychology. — All  beings  endowed  with 
intelligence  are  endowed  with  some  degree  of  conscious- 
ness. The  degree  of  consciousness  increases  as  intelli- 
gence increases.  But  no  brute  gives  evidence  of  dis- 
tinct self-consciousness.  The  horpe,  in  some  degree,  is 
conscious  of  knowing,  feeling,  and  acting ;  but  not  of 
self  as  acting.  No  brute  can  say,  "  I  am,  I  think,  I 
choose."    Only  rational  beings  are  self-conscious  persons. 

Clear  Consciousness,  Obscure  Consciousness,  and  Non- 
Conscionsness. — Your  consciousness  may  be  clear  as  the 
BunUght,  or  it  may  grow  dimmer  and  dimmer  until  it 
is  lost  in  the  darkness  of  unconsciousness.  You  look 
without.  You  see  clearly  the  lofty  pine ;  you  see  more 
or  less  distinctly  the  trees  near  it ;  but  more  distant 
trees  fade  into  obscurity.  You  look  within.  You  are 
clearly  conscious  of  your  deep  sorrow.  Your  grief 
stands  out  in  the  field  of  consciousness  like  the  lofty 


80         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

pine  in  the  forest.     Flitting  hopes  and  fears  and  desires 
appear  like  shadows,  and  fade  into  unconsciousness. 

1.  Clear  self -consciousness.  Everything  appears  in 
the  light.  The  soul  perceives  itself  thinking,  grieving, 
determining.  The  mind  intuitively  knows  itself  acting. 
This  is  self-consciousness.  In  this  sense  it  is  used  in 
psychology  and  literature  as  well  as  in  common  life. 
This  is  consciousness  as  you  define  it,  human-conscious- 
ness, self-consciousness. 

2.  Sub-consciousness  is  obscure  consciousness,.  It  is 
by  some  termed  semi-consciousness.  However  desig- 
nated, indistinct  consciousness  is  implied.  The  orator 
is  conscious  only  of  the  thought  he  is  uttering,  but  back 
in  the  misty  chamber  of  sub-consciousness  are  many 
thoughts  struggling  into  consciousness.  Webster  tells 
us  that,  when  he  was  preparing  his  reply  to  Hayne, 
burning  thoughts  like  clusters  of  stars  crowded  for  utter- 
ance. This  shadowy  region  may  be  called  the  ante- 
chamber of  consciousness.  But,  even  in  this  mystic 
chamber,  the  soul  seems  to  dimly  perceive  itself  working. 

3.  Unconsciousness  is  utter  hlankness.  Imagine  self 
absolutely  dormant — no  knowing,  no  feeling,  no  will- 
ing ;  this  is  unconsciousness.  Non-consciousness  means 
that  phenomena  do  not  appear  to  the  conscious  soul.  I 
am  non-conscious  of  your  thoughts  or  feelings  or  pur- 
poses, or  of  my  own  mental  operations  that  are  supposed 
to  occur  in  the  hidden  laboratory  of  thought. 

Unconscious  Cerebration.—"  Nothing  could  be  more  grossly  un- 
scientific than  the  famous  remark  of  Cabanis,  that  the  brain  secretes 
thought  as  the  liver  secretes  bile.  It  is  not  even  correct  to  say  that 
thought  goes  on  in  the  brain.  What  goes  on  in  the  brain  is  an 
amazingly  complex  series  of  molecular  movements,  with  which 
thought  and  feeling  are  in  some  unknown  way  correlated,  not  as 


CONSCIOUS-PEnCEPTIOX,  OR  SELF -CONSCIOUSNESS.       81 

effects  or  as  causes,  but  as  concomitants.  By  no  possibility  can 
thought  and  feeling  be  in  any  sense  the  products  of  matter.  Un- 
conscious cerebration  is  a  fiction  of  a  false  theory."  *  Self  may  do 
work  of  which  he  is  dimly  conscious,  but  that  a  material  brain 
reaches  conclusions  and  makes  rational  choices  is  simply  inconceiva- 
ble. That  the  mind  is  self-acting  in  all  its  powers  is  a  stupendous 
fact.  That  it  is  ever  consciously  active  in  some  degree,  1  do  not 
doubt ;  but  is  the  soul  distinctly  conscious  of  all  its  workings  ?  No 
one  thinks  so.  Does  the  mind  carry  on  lines  of  work  of  which  it  is 
itself  unconscious?    Let  Dr.  McCosh  answer: 

Unconscious  Mental  Action.—"  It  was  an  opinion,  entertained  by 
Leibnitz,  and  iield  by  many  since  his  time,  that  we  are  unconscious 
of  many  of  our  mental  operations.  They  point  to  acts  of  mind 
which  have  left  effects  behind  them,  but  of  which  we  have  not  the 
dimmest  recollection.  We  are  sure  that  we  must  have  issued  a 
great  many  volitions  in  passing  from  one  place  to  another,  but  after 
they  are  over  we  can  not  recollect  one  of  them.  The  question  arises, 
How  are  we  to  account  for  such  a  phenomenon  f  I  believe  it  can 
all  be  explained  by  the  ordinary  laws  of  mind,  without  our  call- 
ing in  such  an  anomalous  principle  as  unconscious  mental  action. 
I  hold  that  we  were  conscious  of  the  acts  at  the  time,  but  that 
they  were  not  retained,  as  there  was  nothing  to  fix  them  in  the 
memory." 

Here  is  sunlight  clearness.  Here  is  the  granite. 
Some  profound  thinkers,  however,  take  a  widely  differ- 
ent view.  Wundt  is  easily  the  master-mind  among 
physiological  psychologists.  His  views  in  brief  will 
interest  even  beginners.  No  one  needs  to  wander  off 
and  lose  himself  in  the  imaginary  mystic  chambers  of 
the  unconsciouB.  You  can  afford  to  leave  to  daring 
speculators  the  exploration  of  the  mysterious  reahns  of 
the  unconscious,  the  hidden  springs  of  mental  life,  and 
the  unknown  laboratories  of  the  soul.  In  the  following 
paragraph,  Wundt's  ap-perception  is  McCosh's  self-con- 
sciousness and  our  conscious-perception  : 

•  John  Fiflke. 


82         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

The  Unconscious  conditions  the  Conscious.— "  Physiological  psy- 
chology starts  with  physiological  facts  and  seeks  to  discover  the 
psychological  facts  which  are  connected  with  them.  It  begins  with- 
out and  seeks  to  penetrate  within  by  varying  the  external  condi- 
tions of  internal  phenomena.  A  mind  is  a  thing  that  reasons.  A 
faculty  is  a  distinct  mode  of  psychical  activity.  Consciousness  is 
the  faculty  of  internal  vision,  and  the  point  of  clear  consciousness 
may  be  called  ap -perception.  Ap-perception,  or  the  consciousness 
of  perceiving  external  objects,  takes  place  in  the  frontal  regions  of 
the  brain.  Ap-perception  is  the  internal  activity  that  unitizes  our 
experiences.  But  the  agent  that  is  conscious  knows  only  results 
worked  out  in  the  unknown  laboratory  of  the  unconscious.  In  the 
hidden  foundations  and  springs  of  mental  life  take  place  the  impor- 
tant mental  operations  which  fit  things  to  appear  in  the  field  of 
consciousness.  The  conscious  is  always  conditioned  upon  the  un- 
conscious." 

Self-Consciousness  and  Physiological  Psychology. — "  Phenomena," 
says  Lotze,  "  imply  things  which  appear  and  a  self-conscious  being 
to  whom  they  appear.  The  unitizing  function  of  consciousness  is 
an  incontrovertible  fact,  absolutely  inexplicable  on  any  physiological 
hypotheses."  "  The  scope  of  physiological  psychology  is  necessarily 
limited  to  bodily  functions  and  the  physical  concomitants  of  mental 
actions."  "  A  psychology  without  a  soul,"  at  its  best,  has  "  the  brain 
secreting  thought  just  as  the  liver  secretes  bile."  From  this  stand- 
point, the  existence  of  a  self-conscious  soul  is  a  metaphysical  assump- 
tion, and  self-activity  is  inconceivable.  Man  is  merely  a  mechanism, 
and  mind  a  mode  of  motion. 

The  Inner-Sense.—'-  We  have  the  power,"  says  President  Hop- 
kins, "  of  knowing  immediately  the  processes  and  products  of  our 
own  minds.  Through  this  we  not  only  know  ourselves  but  also  our 
fellow-men.  That  this  knowledge  is  immediate  all  agree.  Inner- 
sense  is  the  best  name  for  this  power,  as  it  corresponds  with  outer- 
sense.  But,  call  this  power  what  you  may,  we  have  revealed  through 
it  an  inner  world  more  wonderful  even  than  that  which  is  without — 
a  world  of  intelligence,  of  comprehension,  of  feeling,  of  will,  of  per- 
sonality, and  of  moral  instead  of  physical  law.  It  is  a  world  whose 
phenomena  we  can  study  and  arrange  as  we  do  those  of  the  external 
world;  but,  as  in  the  external  world,  the  phenomena  themselves 
must  be  immediately  given.  We  must  in  some  way  intuitively  and 
necessarily  know  them  to  be." 


CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION,  OR  SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS.       83 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

Beview.— Write  out  a  topical  analysis  of  sense-perception.  Dis- 
rnss  by  topics.  How  do  messages  pass  between  the  outer  and  the 
inner  world  f    Define  mind,  faculty,  sense-perception.    Etc. 

What  is  meant  by  consciousness  ?  Tell  what  comes  to  us  from 
the  wonder-world  around  usf  What  do  you  mean  by  the  inner 
world  f 

What  power  enables  us  to  look  directly  into  the  inner  world  ? 
Explain  the  meaning  of  each  name  given  to  this  faculty.  Which 
name  do  you  prefer  ?     Why  f 

Analyze  two  of  your  acts  of  consciousness.  Give  the  three  great 
facts  you  discover.  Look  once  more.  Are  you  conscious  of  abstract 
sadness,  or  of  self  feeling  sad?  What  do  you  mean  by  self-con- 
sciousness I  What  will  you  call  the  ideas  you  gain  through  con- 
sciousness f 

Give  the  office  of  consciousness.  What  does  self  perceive! 
What  does  sell  do  with  his  experiences  f  Illustrate  by  the  connect- 
ive tissue. 

Name  the  four  characteristics  of  consciousness.  Explain 
each. 

Give  the  author's  definition  of  consciousness  ;  your  definition  ; 
McCosh's  definition ;  Wundt's  definition. 

Define  conscious-percepts.  Give  the  marks  of  a  conscious-per- 
cept. Give  the  distinction  between  a  conscious-percept  and  a  sense- 
percept.    Illustrate. 

State  as  clearly  as  you  can  the  distinctions  between  attention, 
consciousness,  and  memory. 

Trace  the  growth  of  consciousness.  Mention  some  of  the  diffi- 
culties in  studying  mental  phenomena. 

What  do  you  mean  by  clear  consciousness!  by  sub-conscious- 
ness !  by  unconsciousness  ?  What  does  Fiske  say  about  unconscious 
cerebration  f  What  docs  McCosh  say  about  unconscious  mental 
action  !  What  does  Wundt  say  about  the  unconscious  !  What  do 
you  say  ! 

Letter. — You  may  make  a  neat  analysis  of  Chapter  VII,  and  in- 
clude it  in  your  letter  to  your  friend.  It  will  pay  you  to  "  hasten 
leisurely  "  here.  Put  in  your  letter  what  you  perceive  about  your- 
self.   Mastery  here  means  victory  all  along  the  line. 


84         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Topical  An^alysis  of  Chapter  VII.— Self- 
consciousness. 

L   Two  Worlds. 

Matter-world— Sense-perception. 
Mind-world— Conscious-perception. 

II.  Names. 

Conscious-perception,  or  conscious-intuition,  etc 
in.   Analysis  of  Acts  of  Conscion^iness. 

Mental  phenomena.  Self-knowledge. 

Self-consciousness. 
IV.  Office  of  Self-conscionsness. 

To  gain  self-knowledge.  To  know  self  acting. 

To  unitize  our  experiences. 
V.   Characteristics  of  Self-consciousness. 

Sees  self  acting.  Enters  into  all  knowing. 

Gives  certainty.  Is  present  knowing. 

VI.  Definitions  of  Self-conscionsness. 

Author's  definition.  McCosh's  definition. 

Vll.  Conscions-percepts. 

Concrete  notions  of  mental        Individual  notions, 
acts.  Definition. 

VIII.   Attention,  Consciousness,  and  Memory. 

Office  of  each.  Confusion  inexcusable. 

Each  a  disitnct  activity. 
IX.  Growth  of  Consciousness. 

Acts  feebly  in  childhood. 

Reaches  full  activity  in  youth. 
X.   Education  of  Self-consciousness, 

Incidental  in  childhood.  Difficulties. 

Direct  in  youth  and  manhood. 
XI.  Comparative  Psychology. 

Brutes  are  not  self-conscious.    Man  is  self-conscious, 

XII.   Degrees  of  Consciousness. 

Clear  self-consciousness.  Unconsciousness. 

Obscure  consciousness. 
XIII.   Unconscious  Cerebration. 

Fiske.  McCosh.  Wundt. 


NOUMENAL-PERCEPTIOX,  OR  XOUMENAI^IKTUITION.       85 

CHAPTEK  YIIL 

NOUMENAL-PEBCEPnON,    OR   NOUMENAL-INTUITION. 

By  this  is  meant  our  jpower  to  perceive  necessary 
realities.  The  soul  is  endowed  with  the  capability  to 
know  directly  and  immediately  necessary  realities.  Our 
elementary  notions  of  the  realities  that  underlie  phe- 
nomena are  called  necessary  ideas. 

PERCEPTIVE  KNOWING. 


3.  Noumena. 

NOUMENAL-PERCEPTION— NOUMENAL-PERCEPTS. 


2.  Mental  Phenomena. 

CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION-CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTS. 


1.  Fhjrsical  Phenomena. 

SENSE-PERCEPTION-SENSE-PERCEPTS. 


We  find  ourselves  endowed  with  three  perceptive 
faculties  giving  us  direct  insight  into  the  three  element- 
ary worlds.  Sense-perception  and  consciousness  are  our 
powers  to  gain  immediate  knowledge  of  the  two  phe- 
nomenal worlds.  Noumenal-perception  is  our  power  to 
intuitively  behold  the  noumenal  world.  This  power  is 
known  by  the  following  and  still  other 


Kamei. 


( 

j    Rational-Perception,  or  Reason. 

V  Truth-Perception,  or  Common-Sense. 


Noumenal -Percept  ion. 
Noumenal-Intuition,  or  Intuition. 


86         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

KToumena  and  Phenomena. — Gold  is  yellow,  malle- 
able, ductile ;  yellow,  malleable,  ductile,  etc.,  are  phe- 
nomena, but  the  enduring  substance  of  which  we  affirm 
the  phenomena  is  called  noumenon.  I  think  ;  thinking 
is  phenomena,  but  the  enduring  self  who  thinks  is  called 
a  noumenon.  {Noeo^  I  perceive ;  mms^  the  mind  ;  noxi- 
menon^  the  very  essence,  the  enduring  entity,  the  neces- 
sary.) ]S"oumena,  the  plural,  is  now  used  to  include 
necessary  entities  and  necessary  relations,  as  matter, 
mind,  space,  time,  causation,  existence,  right,  beauty, 
resemblance,  truth,  number,  and  infinity.  The  neces- 
sary realities  that  underlie  and  condition  phenomena, 
and  endure  unchanged  through  all  change,  are  termed 
noumena.  Because  we  can  find  no  better  expression, 
we  call  the  power  to  perceive  these  realities  noumenal- 
perception  or  noumenal-in tuition.  Our  concrete  notions 
of  these  realities  are  termed  necessary  ideas,  or  noume- 
nal-percepts. 

Necessary  Ideas. — The  table  is  here  and  the  stove  is 
there.  What  is  this  in  which  things  exist  ?  The  child 
answers,  "It's  where  things  are."  The  philosopher 
calls  it  space.  In  order  that  things  may  be,  space 
TTiust  be.  Space  is  a  necessary  reality.  Space  endures 
— ^is  noumenon  and  not  phenomenon.  Take  this  bar  of 
iron.  I  find  that  it  possesses  the  phenomena  of  exten- 
sion, divisibility,  weight,  porosity,  compressibility,  elas- 
ticity. That  these  properties  or  phenomena  Tnay  be,  a 
substance  possessing  these  properties  Tnust  be.  Mate- 
rial substance  is  a  necessary  reality  underlying  physical 
phenomena.  Material  substance  endures,  is  noumenon, 
and  not  phenomenon.  In  the  same  way  we  find  that 
mind,  time,  cause,  etc.,  are  noumena  and  not  phenom- 


N'OmiENAL-PERCEPTION,  OR  NOUMENAL-INTUITION.       87 

ena.  Our  direct  notions  of  these  realities  are  noumenal- 
percepts.  Because  these  ideas  underlie  and  condition 
all  other  ideas,  they  are  called  necessary  ideas. 

Acts  of  Noumenal-Perception  analyzed. — I  turn  my 
hour-glass.  My  little  girl  patiently  watches  till  the 
last  grain  of  sand  has  fallen,  and  says,  "  Papa,  it  took  a 
long  time."  Intuitively  the  child  perceives  concrete 
time.  The  capability  to  know  noumena  immediately  is 
called  noumenalrpercejption.  In  the  same  way  you  may 
examine  space,  cause,  etc.,  and  discover  for  yourself  the 
nature  of  this  marvelous  power.  You  find  that  you 
perceive  noumena  as  weU  as  phenomena.  Your  analy- 
sis gives  the 

Conditions  of  knowing  Necessary  Ideas. — The  apple 
falls.  "What  made  it  faH?"  asks  the  three-year-old 
Newton.  The  question  involves  the  three  conditions  of 
knowing  necessary  truths : 

1.  Objective  reality.  Space  exists,  though  you  may 
not  perceive  it.  Space  is  an  objective  reality.  The 
notion,  cause,  would  be  impossible  but  for  the  object- 
ive reality  of  causes.  Gravity  is  an  objective  real- 
ity. Time  is  a  reality  independent  of  seK.  Matter  and 
mind  are  objective  realities.  We  perceive  necessary 
realities. 

2.  Phencmiena  involving  necessary  realities.  The 
falling  apple  involves  cause.  Phenomenal  experience 
does  not  give  the  idea,  this  cause,  but  is  necessary  to  the 
perception  of  it.  Seeing  the  falling  apple  was  neces- 
sary in  order  that  Newton  miglit  perceive  gravity.  No 
one  gains  the  idea,  right,  until  he  perceives  right  acts. 
Phenomena  condition  the  perception  of  noumena. 
Without  phenomena  we  can  not  know  noumena. 


88         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

3.  A  capahility  to  perceive  necessary  realities.  A 
being  *not  endowed  with  noumenal-perception  might 
know  phenomena  but  could  never  cognize  noamena. 
Even  the  little  child  knows  at  once  concrete  space  and 
concrete  cause,  just  as  it  knows  color  and  sound  and 
odor.  Self,  as  noumenal-perception,  directly  beholds 
concrete  necessary  realities.  Your  analysis  gives  you 
also  the 

Tests  of  Necessary  Ideas. — How  do  we  know  a  neces- 
sary idea  ?     There  are  four  safe  tests : 

1.  Self-evidence.  Self  stands  fd,ce  to  face  with  ne- 
cessary realities.  Mediate  proofs  are  not  only  not  need- 
ed— they  are  an  insult  to  the  mind.  Think  of  attempt- 
ing to  prove  that  something  made  the  apple  fall !  We 
know  that  we  perceive  these  noumena.  We  do  not  and 
can  not  define  our  necessary  ideas  nor  prove  them. 
They  are  self-emdent.  Axioms  are  abstract  necessary 
truths,  elaborated  from  necessary  ideas,  and,  like  these 
ideas,  are  self-evident. 

2.  Necessity.  The  mind  must  start  with  something. 
There  must  be  primary  ideas  before  there  can  be  sec- 
ondary ones.  Noumenal  ideas  must  be,  in  order  that 
phenomenal  ideas  may  be,  just  as  noumena  must  be  that 
phenomena  may  be.  Space  must  be,  in  order  that  ex- 
tended objects  may  be.  Mind  must  be,  that  thought 
may  be.  I  must  perceive  the  necessary  reality,  concrete 
being,  before  I  can  say,  "  He  is."  We  perceive  these 
foundation  ideas  to  be  ultimate  and  final.  We  discern 
their  necessity  in  all  knowing.  They  are  necessary 
ideas. 

3.  Universality.  Necessary  ideas  are  accepted  by 
all.     One  or  more  necessary  ideas  are  present  in  each 


NOUMENAL-PERCEPTIOX,  OR  NOUMENAL-IXTUITION.       89 

act  of  the  mind.  Kecessary  ideas  are  the  universal 
ideas  that  underlie  and  condition  all  other  ideas. 

4.  Independence,  Like  a  chemical  element,  a  neces- 
sary idea  is  ultimate.  A  necessary  idea  can  not  be  de- 
rived from  other  ideas.  Each  necessary  idea  is  absolute- 
ly independent  of  other  necessary  ideas.  An  idea  that 
is  self-evident,  necessary,  universal,  and  independent,  is 
a  necessary  idea. 

Noumenal-Percepts  are  singular,  concrete,  necessary 
notions.  Keep  in  mind  that  only  our  concrete  notions 
are  called  percepts.  I  perceive  this  large  tiger,  but  I 
do  not  perceive  vertebrate.  The  notion,  this  tiger,  is 
a  sense-percept.  I  perceive  self  remembering  the  story 
of  Tell,  but  I  do  not  perceive  abstract  memorj.  The 
idea,  this  memory,  is  a  conscious-percept.  I  perceive 
that  heat  causes  this  water  to  boil,  but  I  do  not  perceive 
that  every  effect  must  have  a  cause.  The  idea,  this  cause, 
is  a  noumenal-percept.  Sense-percepts,  conscious-per- 
cepts, and  noumenal-percepts,  are  individual  concrete 
notions.  We  perceive  the  concrete,  not  the  abstract ; 
the  individual,  not  the  general.  Noumenal-percepts  are 
concrete  notions  of  necessary  realities. 

Wt  perceiw  the  individual,  npt  the  general.  I  perceive  this 
space,  not  infinite  space ;  this  cause,  not  universal  cause ;  this  time, 
not  eternity;  this  infinity,  not  the  unlimited.  What  a  world  of 
confusion  would  be  avoided  by  heeding  this  plain  psychological 
fact  I  Noumenal-fKjrcepts  are  concrete  notions  of  necessary  entities 
and  necessary  relations.  Most  of  the  designations  of  these  ideas  are 
now  merely  historic    The  following  are  some  of  the 

'  Noumenal-Percepts,  or  Noumenal-Intuitions. 
Necessary  Ideas,  or  a  priori  Ideas. 
VuBM. —  <  First  Truths,  or  Necessary  Truths,  or  Intuitions. 
Categorical  Ideas,  or  Regulative  Ideas. 
I  Innate  Ideas,  or  Connate  Ideas. 


90         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Through  the  centuries  these  expressions  have  eon- 
fused  philosophers,  but  need  not  now  confuse  you.  You 
find  that  you  are  endowed  wdth  the  capability  to  know 
intuitively  substances  and  necessary  relations.  You  call 
the  concrete  ideas  thus  gained  noumenal-percepts,  or 
noumenal-intuitions,  or  necessary  ideas.  Perhaps,  for 
the  present,  it  will  be  well  to  disregard  the  other  names. 
Later  you  will  be  interested  in  tracing  their  history. 
Necessary  judgments,  elaborated  from  necessary  ideas, 
are  called  axioms,  first  truths,  and  necessary  truths. 

Necessary  Realities,  Necessary  Ideas,  Necessary  Judgments. — You 
need  to  clearly  distinguish  these  expressions.  To  help  you  to  do 
so,  this  connected  view  is  given : 

1.  Necessary  realities  are  the  realities  that  make  phenomena 
possible.  Mind,  matter,  cause,  space,  time,  infinity,  truth,  beauty, 
right,  and  a  few  other  realities,  are  classed  as  necessary  realities 
because  they  must  be  in  order  that  phenomena  may  be. 

2.  Necessary  ideas  are  our  immediate  notions  of  necessary  reali- 
ties. My  notion,  this  space,  is  necessary  to  my  knowing  that  the 
table  is  here  and  the  stove  there.  My  idea,  this  space,  is  a  necessary 
idea.  Our  elementary  notions  of  necessary  realities  are  termed  ne- 
cessary ideas  because  they  underlie  and  condition  all  other  ideas. 

3.  Necessary  judgments  are  truths  elaborated  from  necessary 
ideas.  Cold  causes  this  water  to  congeal.  My  idea,  this  cause,  is  a 
necessary  idea ;  but,  that  every  effect  must  have  a  cause,  is  a  neces- 
sary judgment,  a  necessary  truth.  Axioms  are  necessary  truths 
elaborated  from  necessary  ideas. 

Tree  of  Necessary  Ideas.* — As  the  tree  of  life  bore 
twelve  kinds  of  fruit,  so  this  tree  bears  twelve  kinds  of 
necessary  ideas.  These  ideas  are  involved  in  all  know- 
ing. Self,  as  nouraenal-perception,  immediately  knows 
these  ideas  in  individual  and  concrete  cases.  Self,  as 
reason,  infers  general   truths   from   particular  truths. 

♦  Basoom's  enumeration  of  necessary  ideas  is  adopted. 


NOUMENAL-PERCEPTIOX,  OR  NOUMENAL-INTDITION.       91 


INTUITIVE  KNOWING 


92         ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Axioms  are  necessary  truths  generalized.  You  will 
critically  apply  the  four  tests  given  above,  and  remove 
from  the  tree  spurious  fruit. 

Build  on  the  Rock. — Truth  must  be  seen  with  sun- 
light clearness.  You  can  afford  to  linger  here.  A  few 
hours  of  penetrating  thought  may  save  you  from  a  life 
of  groping. 

1.  Sjpace,  I  walk  a  mile.  What  is  this  through 
which  I  walk  and  in  which  all  things  are  ?  The  child 
perceives  the  idea,  where  things  are,  and  learns  to  call 
this  reality  space.  As  space  is  not  a  phenomenon,  we 
can  not  gain  the  idea  through  outer  or  inner-perception. 
As  space  is  elementary,  we  can  not  infer  this  idea  from 
other  ideas.  Self,  as  noumenal-perception,  knows  im- 
mediately this  space,  and  this,  and  this.  Let  us  try  the 
four  tests :  (1)  I  stand  face  to  face  with  this  space.  I 
know  that  I  perceive  this  space ;  this  is  self-evidence. 
(2)  That  things  may  be,  space  must  be.  Space  is  a 
necessary  reality.  (3)  I  think  of  things  as  in  space. 
Everything  is  somewhere.  The  space-idea  pervades  all 
thinking — is  universal.  (4)  I  find  it  impossible  to  de- 
rive this  idea  from  other  ideas,  just  as  it  is  impossible 
to  derive  gold  from  the  baser  metals.  Space  is  a  ne- 
cessary reality,  and  the  space-idea  is  a  necessary  idea. 
Most  of  the  axioms  of  geometry  are  intuitive  truths 
generalized  from  space-percepts. 

2.  Time.  I  take  the  train  at  Philadelphia  and  go 
to  New  York.  I  spend  from  breakfast  to  dinner  with 
a  friend.  What  passes  ?  "  Mamma,  you  stayed  a  long 
time."  The  child  has  the  idea — time.  How  did  it  gain 
this  idea  ?  You  answer  that  the  child  intuitively  per- 
ceives this  time,  and  this,  when  its  experiences  involve 


NOUMENAL-PERCEPTION,  OR  NOUMEXAL-INTUITION.       93 

time.  You  reason  as  follows :  The  idea,  this  time,  must 
be  a  phenomenal-percept,  a  specific  truth  under  some 
general  truth,  or  a  noumenal-percept.  It  is  not  a  phe- 
nomenal truth.  No  one  claims  that  it  is  a  specific  idea 
under  some  general  idea.  We  can  not  avoid  the  con- 
clusion :  the  idea,  this  time,  is  a  noumenal-percept. 
Apply  the  four  tests  of  necessary  ideas.  What  kind  of 
truths  are  the  axioms  of  algebra  ?  Is  dn  axiom  a  neces- 
sary idea  or  a  necessary  truth  ? 

3.  Eddstence.  The  mountain  is — exists.  It  is  is 
the  only  affirmation  applicable  to  everything.  That 
existence  is  a  necessary  idea  will  be  readily  seen.  In- 
deed, this  idea  seems  to  underlie  all  other  ideas.  Self, 
as  noumenal-perception,  intuitively  knows  things  as 
existing.  Prove  that  the  notion  "  concrete  existence  " 
is  a  necessary  idea. 

4.  Bight  The  bad  boy  strikes  his  mother.  His 
little  sister  says  to  him,  "  You  ought  not — wrong ; 
naughty.""  The  child  reads  the  story  of  the  good 
Samaritan  :  its  "  bad  Pharisee  "  and  "  good  Samaritan  " 
show  that  the  child  has  the  idea  of  right  and  wrong. 
In  fact,  whenever  the  child  observes  acts  involving 
right,  it  at  once  perceives  the  idea  of  right.  From 
experience  and  education  it  finds  out  what  is  right,  and 
soon  learns  to  say,  "  That  is  right."  Show  that  the  no- 
tion "  concrete  right "  is  a  necessary  idea. 

5.  Beauty.  "The  babe  is  beautiful."  The  child 
perceives  something  pleasing  in  things.  Before  it  learns 
to  say  "  Beautiful  bird  I "  it  knows  concrete  beauty. 
Self,  as  sense-perception,  sees  the  yellow  primrose,  and, 
as  noumenal-perception,  knows  it  as  beautiful.  Apply 
to  beauty  the  tests  of  necessary  ideas. 


94         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY   AND  EDUCATION. 

6.  Truth.  The  blood  circulates.  The  earth  is 
spherical.  These  are  statements  of  truths,  for  they 
assert  realities.  .  Arnold  was  a  traitor.  This  is  true — it 
asserts  a  fact.  Washington  was  a  traitor.  This  is  not 
true — it  asserts  a  falsehood.  The  child  intuitively  be- 
holds the  truth-idea  in  individual  truths. 

7.  Matter,  I  press  the  table ;  it  resists  me.  I  see 
that  it  has  extension.  I  find  that  I  can  move  it.  I 
place  it  on  the  scales ;  it  has  weight.  The  enduring 
thing  having  these  attributes  I  learn  to  call  matter. 
Self,  as  sense-perception,  knows  immediately  physical 
phenomena.  Self,  as  noumenal-perception,  knows  im- 
mediately matter — things  having  properties.  It  is  self- 
evident  that  the  substance  sugar  rtiust  be,  in  order  that 
the  property  sweet  mcvy  be.  We  know  things  as  hav- 
ing attributes.  I  see  the  tree.  This  mental  act  involves 
sense-perception,  for  I  intuitively  cognize  the  tree  as 
tall  and  green.  It  involves  self-consciousness,  for  I 
cognize  self  perceiving  the  tall,  green  tree.  It  also  in- 
volves noumenal-perception,  for  I  intuitively  cognize  the 
entity,  which  is  tall  and  green,  as  a  material  substance. 

8.  Mind,  I  think,  I  admire,  I  decide.  I  am  con- 
scious of  thinking,  feeling,  willing.  That  mental  acts 
may  be,  a  mental  entity  must  be. 

"  I  think  we  are  not  wholly  brain. 

Magnetic  mockeries ;  casts  in  clay ; 
Let  science  prove  we  are,  and  then 
What  matters  science  unto  men  \ " 
I  know  by  direct  insight  that  the  noumenon  underlies 
the  phenomenon.     The  spirit  entity  that  thinks,  I  in- 
tuitively know  as  self.     I  perceive  seK  thinking,  feel- 
ing, and  willing.     I  am  conscious  of  noumenal-intuition 


NOUMENAL-PERCEPTION,  OR  NOUMENAL-INTUITION.       95 

just  as  I  am  conscious  of  sense-intuition.  "  I  am,  there- 
fore I  think,"  is  the  true  psychology.  "The  mind," 
says  Wundt,  "  is  the  entity  that  reasons." 

9.  Cause.  Why  does  the  ball  fall  ?  The  child  says, 
"Cause."  Why  does  the  clock  tick ^  "Cause."  The 
child  notices  changes,  and  asks  you,  "  What  makes  the 
changes?''  You  answer,  "Cause."  That  effects  may 
be,  cause  must  be.  Causation  is  a  necessary  idea.  We 
perceive  concrete  cause,  and  think  the  general :  "  Every 
effect  must  have  a  cause."  The  idea,  this  cause,  is  in- 
tuitive. As  mind  originates  activity — possesses  sponta- 
neity— we  may  say  that  a  mind  is  a  self-cause.  The 
absolute  self-cause  is  God. 

10.  Numher.  Is  number  a  necessary  idea  ?  Try  it. 
In  case  you  remove  number  from  the  truth-tree,  en- 
deavor to  replace  it  by  a  genuine  necessary  idea.  How 
will  hberty  do  ?     How  do  you  like  spontaneity  ? 

11.  Resemblance.  The  likeness  in  the  two  things 
observed  is  not  in  the  one  or  in  the  other.  Every  case 
of  comparison  is  but  an  application  of  the  idea — resem- 
blance. As  experience  can  not  give  the  idea,  and  as  it 
can  not  be  a  product  of  induction,  we  class  resemblance 
as  one  of  our  necessary  ideas. 

12.  Infinity.     Take-^  =  -3333333  -f  ;  however  far  f 
I  carry  the  process,  I  know  I  do  not  and  can  not  reach  a 
limit.    I  perceive  this  infinity.    Take  two  parallel  lines. 

I  extend  them  two  feet.  They  are  still  the  same  dis- 
tance apart.  I  have  the  direct  insight  that  they  would 
never  meet,  however  far  extended.  Intuitively  I  know 
this  infinity.  I  imagine  a  limit  to  space.  What  lies 
beyond  ?  Space.  Space  is  its  own  environment.  Space 
is  self-related.     Space  is  limitless.     Space  is  infinite. 


96         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Show  that  jou  intuitively  know  infinite  time  and  in- 
finite cause. 

Noumenal  -  Perception  defined. — Self,  as  noumenal- 
perception,  perceives  necessary  ideas.  This  is  about  all 
that  can  be  said.  The  fact  is  so  simple  that  we  can  find 
nothing  simpler  into  which  to  resolve  it. 

1.  Noumenal-jpercejption  is  the  mental  power  to  gain 
intuitively  concrete  necessary  ideas.  It  is  understood 
that  noumenal-perception  is  an  ultimate  endowment  of 
the  soul,  and  that  we  perceive  necessary  ideas  only  in 
the  singular  and  in  the  concrete. 

2.  Original.  You  have  done  your  best  to  under- 
stand this  faculty.  Now  embody  your  conclusion  in  a 
good  definition. 

Various  Definitions.* — 1.  Bascom  :  The  capability  to  know  di- 
rectly intuitive  ideas.  2.  Schuyler:  The  power  of  apprehending 
necessary  ideas.  3.  Laws  :  Noumenal-intuition  is  the  power  to 
know  immediately  and  instantly  noumenal  ideas.  4.  Hopkins  : 
The  power  to  know  immediately  first  ideas.  5.  Porter  :  The 
power  to  acquire  first  ideas  intuitively.  6.  Hamilton  :  The  power 
the  mind  has  of  being  the  native  source  of  a  priori  cognitions.  7. 
White  :  Intuition  is  the  power  to  know  directly  and  immediately 
necessary  relations ;  as,  space,  time,  being,  substance,  cause,  de- 
sign, etc. 

Agnosticism. — To  know  is  to.be  certain  of  something. 
1^0  mysticism  must  be  admitted  into  the  operations  of 

*  Explanatory. — In  these  definitions  the  expression  necessary  trvth  is 
used  in  the  sense  of  necessary  idea.  To  avoid  confusion  we  have  substituted 
"  ideas  "  for  "  truths  "  in  the  following  (definitions.  A  necessary  truth  is  a 
generalization  from  necessary  ideas.  We  perceive  necessary  ideas,  and  elab- 
orate them  into  necessary  truths.  The  notion  that  these  equals  added  to 
these  give  equal  sums,  is  a  necessary  idea ;  but  the  generalization  that 
equals  added  to  equals  give  equal  sums,  is  a  necessary  truth.  We  gain 
necessary  ideas  intuitively,  but  infer  necessary  truths.  Axioms  are  neces- 
sary truths,  not  necessary  ideas.     The  distinction  is  deemed  important. 


NOUMENAL-PERCEPTION,  OR  NOUMENAL-INTUITION.       97 

the  intellect.  We  begin  with  certainty,  and  not  doubt. 
We  know  ourselves  thinking  and  perceiving  material 
objects.  Not  only  do  all  men  admit  necessary  ideas, 
but  they  must.  Agnosticism  is  intellectual  suicide. 
Only  "  cranks  "  deny  their  own  existence.  "  We  know 
matter  as  existing,  but  we  also  know,  and  this  directly, 
that  it  has  relations  to  other  things  known,  that  it  is  in 
space,  and  that  there  is  causation  in  its  action.  We  also 
know  mind  as  existing,  and  we  know  it  to  have  being, 
potency,  spirituality,  and  relations  to  things."  Endowed 
with  intuition,  we  build  on  the  rock.  "  Philosophy," 
says  Carlyle,  "  can  bake  no  bread  ;  but  she  can  procure 
for  us  God,  freedom,  and  immortality."  Psychology 
can  build  no  railroads,  but  she  can  give  us  certainty.  A 
knowledge  of  our  own  capabilities  renders  agnosticism 
impossible. 

Growth  of  Noumeiial-Perceptioii. — ^Each  act  of  sense- 
perception  involves  noumenal-perception.  I  perceive, 
not  abstract  properties,  but  things  having  properties.  I 
perceive,  not  abstract  mental  acts,  but  self  knowing, 
feeling,  acting.  Thus  it  is  evident  that  the  child  gains 
necessary  ideas  as  involved  in  the  perception  of  phe- 
nomena. They  are  seen  dimly  at  first.  While  all  men 
accept  and  act  upon  necessary  ideas,  few  distinctly  state 
them  to  themselves.  No  one  denies  his  own  exist- 
ence, or  that  he  is  in  space,  or  that  he  grows  old,  but 
few  grasp  distinctly  and  fully  these  ideas.  This  power, 
though  early  active,  is  probably  the  latest  of  all  the  fac- 
ulties in  reaching  full  activity  and  development.  These 
necessary  or  ultimate  ideas  seem  to  develop  in  the  fol- 
lowing order:  Our  first  noumenal-percepts  are  concrete 
notions  of  objective  realities.     We  know  things  having 


08         ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

properties.     The  ideas,  time  and  space,  appear  in  con- 
nection with  our  ideas  of  things.     Next  we   observe 
change,  and  directly  gain  the  cause-idea.    Next  we  gain 
the  idea — law — through  our  knowledge  of  the  uniform 
ways  in  which  energies  act.    Finally,  we  gain  the  idea — 
this  unity — from  our  knowledge  of  the  coHDrdination  of 
things.     Thus,  step  by  step,  we  advance  to  the  concep- 
tion of  the  universe  as  the  perfect  unity.     Tennyson, 
holding  the  tiny  flowering  plant,  well  expresses  this  idea : 
"  I  pluck  you  out  of  the  crannies ; 
Hold  you  here,  root  and  all,  in  my  hand, 
Little  flower — but  if  I  could  understand 
What  you  are,  root  and  all,  all  in  all, 
I  should  know  what  God  and  man  is." 

SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

Review. — Place  on  the  board  your  diagram  of  conscious-percep- 
tion, and  also  the  diagram  of  sense-perception.  Compare  by  topics 
with  your  analyses  of  noumenal-perception. 

What  is  meant  by  noumenal-perception  ?  by  noumena  I 

Mention  the  names  applied  to  noumenal-perception.  Which 
name  do  you  prefer  I  Why  ?  Give  the  distinction  between  noumena 
and  phenomena.  Illustrate.  Give  the  etymology  of  noumenon  and 
the  meaning  of  noumena.    Why  do  we  use  this  hard  word  f 

What  do  you  mean  by  necessary  ideas  ?  Name  several  necessary 
ideas.    Prove  that  time  is  a  necessary  idea. 

Analyze  two  of  your  acts  of  noumenal-perception.  What  do 
you  discover  ? 

Name  the  three  conditions  of  cognizing  necessary  ideas.  State 
the  first  test  of  a  necessary  idea.  Illustrate.  Give  the  second  test 
and  illustrate.    Give  the  third ;  the  fourth. 

What  is  a  noumenal-percept  f  Are  percepts  general  or  particu- 
lar notions  I  Illustrate.  Give  some  of  the  names  applied  to  nou- 
menal  percepts.  Explain.  Criticise  the  expression  "  innate  ideas." 
Are  powers  innate  I    Are  all  ideas  acquired  f 


NOUMENAL-PERCEPTIOX,  OR  NOmTENAL-INTUITION.       99 

Place  the  tree  of  necessary  ideas  on  the  board.  Test  the  fruit. 
State  the  author's  definition  of  noumenal-perception ;  your  definition ; 
definition  of  Dr.  Laws ;  Hamilton's  definition ;  White's  definition. 

Show  that  agnosticism  disappears  in  the  light  of  the  true  psy- 
chology. What  is  agnosticism  ?  Why  do  some  persons  claim  to  be 
agnostics  t    Is  absolute  agnosticism  possible  I 

Letter. — You  will  need  to  explain  and  illustrate  very  clearly. 
Though  not  more  diflBcult  to  understand  than  sense-perception,  your 
friend  may  not  be  familiar  with  noumenal-perception,  and  will  need 
very  full  explanations. 

Topical  Analysis  of  Chapter  VIIL — Noumenal- 
Perception. 

I.  Position. 

3.  Noumenal-perception. 

2.  Conscious-perception. 

1.  Sense-perception. 
II.   Names. 

Noumenal-perception.  Truth-perception. 

Noumenal-intuition.  Intuition,  common-sense, 

Rational-perception,  or  reason.        etc. 
m.  Conditions  of  Cognizing  Nonmena. 

Objective  reality.  Noumenal-perception. 

Phenomena. 
IV.  Tests  of  Necessarf  Ideas. 

Self-evidence.  Universality. 

Necessity.  Independence, 

V.  Ifonmenal-percepts. 

Definition. 

f  Singular  notions. 

Marks •<  Concrete  notions. 

v.  Notions  of  necessary  realities. 

Kamzs. 

Noumenal-percepts  and  necessary  ideas. 
Nouraenal-intuitions  and  ultimate  ideas. 
Necessary  truths  and  first  truths. 
A  priori  ideas  and  intuitions. 
Innate  ideas  and  connate  ideas. 
Categorical  ideAs,  etc. 


100       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

VI.  First  Truths  (grouped  by  Bascom). 

Existence. 
Number. 
Resemblance. 
Space.  "^  f    Consciousness. 

Time  J     Spontaneity. 

J     Truth. 
Causation.     )  V    Right. 

Beauty. 
The  Infinite. 
YII.  Noumenai-perception  defined* 

Author's  definition.  Various  definitions. 

Original  definition. 
VIII.  Agnosticism. 

Define.  Disprove. 

IX.  Growth  and  Development  of  Noumenai-perception. 
1.  Time.  2.  Means.  3.  Methods. 


CHAPTEE  IX. 

PERCEPTIVE   KKOWING GENERAL   VIEW. 

Perceptive  Knowing  is  simply  Direct  Insight. — Self 
stands  face  to  face  with  noumena  as  well  as  with  phe- 
nomena. I  do  not  prove  to  you  that  the  sun  is  bright, 
that  you  despise  cowards,  or  that  something  makes  the 
apple  fall.  You  know  these  things  at  once.  All  im- 
mediate concrete  knowing  is  intuitive.  Perceptive 
knowing  is  intuitive  knowing,  is  immediate  knowing, 
is  presentative  knowing,  is  simple  cognition. 

Perceptive  Knowing. 

jj.         J  Presentative  Knowing. 

Intuitive  Knowing. 
Simple  Cognition. 


PERCEPTIVE  KNOWING— GENERAL  VlU^:^         l01 

The  Perceptive  Faculties  are  the  Capabilities  to  knew 
immediately. — Because  we  are  endowed  with  direct  in- 
sight, these  powers  are  called  intuitive  faculties.  As 
we  acquire  immediate  knowledge,  these  are  also  called 
the  acquisitive  faculties.  Because  the  things  known  are 
made  present,  some  term  these  the  presentative  facul- 
ties. Simple  cognitive  powers  is  also  a  good  name,  as 
these  faculties  give  us  knowledge  in  its  simplest  form. 

r  The  Perceptive  Powers. 
I   The  Intuitive  Powers. 
Names. —  -{   The  Acquisitive  Powers. 
The  Presentative  Powers. 
L  The  Simple  Cognitive  Powers. 

We  perceive  Noumena  as  well  as  Phenomena. — We 
have  direct  insight  into  the  matter-world,  the  mind- 
world,  and  the  world  of  necessary  realities.  We  are 
endowed  with  three  intuitive  powers,  each  opening  to 
us  a  distinct  world.  In  each  perceptive  act  each  of  the 
three  forms  of  perception  supplements  the  others. 


Sense-Perception. 
The  Perceptive  Faculties. —  -^  Conscious-Perception. 

Nouraenal-Perception. 


Sense-Perception  is  the  Capability  to  gain  Elementary 
Sense-Knowledge. — We  acquire  knowledge  through  the 
senses.  Sense-perception  is  the  best  possible  name  for 
this  faculty.  As  we  know  at  once  the  outer  world,  this 
faculty  is  properly  called  outer-perception,  external-per- 
ception, and  objective-perception.  Perception  is  brief 
but  indefinite. 


-{ 


Sense-Perception.  Objective-Perception. 

Names. —  -j  Outer-Perception.  Perception. 

External-Perception. 


102       ELEMEKTAHY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

•  Conscioiitoe^  is  the  Capability  to  perceive  Self  acting, 
— I  have  direct  insight  into  the  mind- world.  I  per- 
ceive myself  knowing,  feeling,  willing.  Because  we 
have  direct  insight  into  the  inner-world,  this  faculty  is 
called  inner-perception.  As  we  know  immediately  men- 
tal phenomena,  this  power  is  also  termed  conscious-per- 
ception and  conscious-intuition.  The  mind  looks  on 
itself  working,  hence  Kant  named  this  capability  ap- 
perception. McCosh  calls  it  self -consciousness.  To 
correspond  with  objective-perception,  some  name  it 
subjective-perception.  Each  name  has  its  merits,  but 
self-consciousness  and  conscious-perception  are  preferred. 

Consciousness  and  Conscious-Perception. 
Inner-Perception. 
Self-Consciousness. 
Conscious-Intuition. 
Ap-Perception. 
^  Subjective-Perception. 

Nonmenal-Perception  is  the  Capability  to  know  intui- 
tively Necessary  Realities. — Noumena  means  the  ulti- 
mate and  the  necessary.  Such  ultimate  realities  as  space, 
time,  cause,  are  noumena.  "  Noumenon,"  says  Herbert 
Spencer,  "is  the  antithesis  of  phenomenon.  Appear- 
ance without  reality  is  unthinkable.  N^oumenon  is  ne- 
cessary actuality."  Because  we  have  direct  insight  into 
the  necessary  truth- world,  this  faculty  is  called  truth- 
perception.  As  we  know  at  once  necessary  ideas,  some 
call  this  power  intuition,  or  rational-intuition.  In  this 
sense,  intuition  is  indefinite  and  misleading.  Each  per- 
ceptive faculty  is  an  intuitive  faculty.  Sense-intuition, 
conscious-intuition,  and  noumenal-in tuition,  are  correct 
and  definite  names.     This  faculty  is  also  called  reason 


Karnes.- 


PERCEPTIVE  KNOWING— GENERAL  VIEW.  103 

and  rational-perception,  because  rational  beings  alone 
perceive  necessary  realities.  But,  as  reason  is  now  al- 
most uniformly  used  to  designate  the  power  of  infer- 
ence, these  names  are  objectionable.  IN-oumenal-percep- 
tion  and  noumenal-intuition  are  unobjectionable. 

{Noumenal-Perception. 
Noumenal-intuition  and  Intuition. 
Truth-Perception. 
Rational-Perception  and  Reason. 

Products  of  Perceptive  Knowing. — Self  gains  some 
ideas  at  once.  These  singular,  concrete  ideas  are  per- 
cepts. As  we  gain  these  ideas  by  direct  insight,  they 
are  called  intuitions.  As  these  ideas  are  the  elements 
of  all  knowing,  they  are  simple  cognitions. 

f  Percepts. 
Karnes. —  ■<  Intuitions. 

(  Simple  Cognitions. 

Classes  of  Percepts. — A  mind  acts  as  a  unit.  Each 
mental  power  is  supplemented  by  all  the  other  powers 
of  the  soul.  A  mental  product  results  from  self  acting 
in  all  his  capabilities.  We  are  conscious  of  our  noume- 
nal  as  well  as  of  our  phenomenal  perceiving.  Through 
phenomena  we  perceive  noumena,  and  we  perceive  nou- 
mena  as  necessary  to  phenomena.  Still,  our  elementary 
ideas  form  these  well-marked  groups.  Those  gained 
through  the  senses  are  sense-ideas,  or  sense-percepts; 
those  gained  through  consciousness  are  conscious-ideas, 
or  conscious-percepts;  and  those  gained  through  nou- 
menal-perception  are  noumenal-ideas,  or  noumenal-per- 

cepts. 

{Sense-Percepts. 
Conscious-Percepts, 
Necessary  Truths. 


104      ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Sense-Intuitions. 


Intuitions. —  -j  i  Conscious-Intuitions, 

(.  Nouraenal — Necessary  Ideas. 

1.  Sense-percepts  are  simple  cognitions  of  material 
objects.  We  perceive  material  objects  as  external,  ex- 
tended, and  as  exerting  force. 

2.  GonsGious-percepts  are  simple  cognitions  of  self 
acting.     We  perceive  self  existing  and  exerting  power. 

3.  Noumenalrj)erGepts  are  simple  cognitions  of  ne- 
cessary realities.  We  perceive  necessary  entities  and 
necessary  relations.  Our  concrete  notions  of  these  ne- 
cessary realities  gained  by  direct-insight  are  termed  noii- 
menal-percepts.  Nothing  could  be  plainer.  Strange, 
that  antiquated  darkness  and  misleading  theories  should 
so  long  hide  the  truth !  But  modern  psychologists  have 
brushed  away  the  cobwebs.  It  is  the  old  story  of  Co- 
lumbus and  the  ^g'g, 

SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

Place  the  diagrams  of  sense-perception,  conscious-perception, 
and  noumenal-perception  side  by  side  on  a  sheet  of  paper,  or  on 
blackboards.     Compare  them  topic  by  topic. 

With  the  diagrams  before  you,  study  Chapter  IX.  Do  not  for  a 
moment  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  self  acts  as  a  unit.  Dr.  Laws  in- 
sists that  the  intuitive  faculty  is  simple  in  its  nature  but  complex  in 
its  functions,  and  presents  it  as  follows : 

(  Phenomenal-Intuition.  rS^^^^^:P^^^^P^^«"- 
Intuition. —  <  (  Consciousness. 

(  Noumenal-Intuition. 
Some  writers  claim  that  sense-perception  and  consciousness  give  us 
noumenal  as  well  as  phenomenal  percepts.    To  me  it  seems  every 
way  better  to  treat  each  perceptive  function  as  a  distinct  faculty. 

Beferences. — Those  wishing  fuller  information  are  referred  to 
Porter's  "Human  Intellect";  Sully's  "Psychology";  McCosh's 
" Pyschology " ;  Hopkins's  "Outline  Study  of  Man";  Bascom's 
"  Science  of  Mind,"  etc. 


PART    III. 
THE  REPRESENTATIVE  POWERS. 


CHAPTER  X.— Memory. 
XI.— Phantasy. 
XII.— Imagination. 
XIII. — Representation. — General  View. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PYRAMID, 


d       THE  WILL 
^  I    POWERS. 


THE 
EMOTIONS. 


Q 

Lu 

X 

u. 
O 


C5 

2   I  THE 

w   f    PHYSICAL 

FEELINGS. 


THE 
INSTINCTS. 


THE 
THINKING 
POWERS. 


o 

'^   '         THE 
S  /REPRESENT-j 
O   I        ATIVE 
■    POWERS. 


IMAGINATION. 
PHANTASY. 
MEMORY. 


IDEALS. 


■0 
O 

lPHANTASMS.1  C 

MEMORIES.  I  ;^ 


THE 

fPERCEPTIVE/ 

POWERS. 


NOUMENAL-PERCEPTION. 

CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION. 

SENSE-PERCEPTION. 


NOUMENAL-l 
PERCEPTS. 

CONSCIOUS-1 
PERCEPTS. 

SENSE- 
PERCEPTS. 


THIED    PABT. 

THE  REPRESENTATIVE  POWERS. 


By  these  we  mean  our  capabilities  to  r^resent  our 
experiences  in  old  or  new  forms.  Now  you  stand  be- 
neath the  fragrant  orange-tree,  and  see  and  handle  and 
smell  and  taste  its  delicious  fruit.  You  present,  or  make 
jpresent,  to  yourself  the  orange-tree,  with  its  environ- 
ments. Weeks  have  passed.  An  orange-blossom  in 
a  bouquet  suggests  that  orange-tree.  You  see  yourself 
again  standing  beneath  the  tree  and  enjoying  its  fra- 
grant fruit.  You  represent,  or  make  present  again^ 
to  yourself  the  orange-tree.  The  power  to  r^resent 
things  to  yourself  just  as  you  presented  them  the  first 
time  is  called  memory.  You  fall  asleep.  You  see  your- 
self standing  beneath  an  orange-tree.  The  fruit  is  pure 
gold.  You  fill  your  basket  with  gold  oranges,  and 
dream  of  boundless  wealth.  The  picture  seems  to  you 
an  objective  reality.  The  power  thus  spontaneously  to 
rq)re8ent  things  to  yourself,  changed  but  seeming  to 
be  realities,  is  called  phantasy.  You  plan  an  orange- 
grove.  All  the  rows  are  circles.  In  the  midst  you 
place  a  lovely  cottage  for  yourself,  "with  one  fair 
spirit  for  your  minister."  The  power  to  thus  inten- 
9 


108       ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

tionally  /•^present  your  experiences,  modified  into  ideak 
is  called  imagination. 

I  Memoiy. 
The  Representative  Faculties. —  }  Phantasy. 

(  Imagination. 

You  recall  the  landscape  just  as  you  saw  it ;  self, 
as  memory,  recalls.  You  drift  into  dream-land,  linking 
fancy  unto  fancy ;  self,  as  phantasy,  builds  air-castles. 
You  plan  an  ideal  cottage ;  self,  as  imagination,  creates 
ideals.  Our  representative  faculties  are  our  powers  to 
reproduce  and  change  the  forms  of  our  acquisitions. 


CHAPTEK  X. 

MEMOKY. 

By  this  is  meant  the  power  to  reproduce  our  acqui- 
sitions just  as  we  experienced  them.  Years  ago  you 
saw  an  eclipse  of  the  sun.  Now  you  reproduce  the 
scene  exactly  as  you  perceived  it.  You  say  you  remQm- 
ber.  Yesterday  you  felt  angry.  You  are  now  conscious 
of  the  fact  that  you  were  angry,  and  of  the  insulting 
note  that  occasioned  your  anger.  You  recall  your  past 
experience. 

Acts  of  Memory  analyzed. — Some  time  since  I  at- 
tended a  lecture  on  the  solar  spectrum.  I  now  recall 
the  spectrum  as  it  appeared  on  the  canvas.  I  recall 
the  lecturer,  and  myself  enjoying  the  lecture.  The 
whole  scene,  just  as  presented,  is  again  made  present — 
is  7'^resented.     Thus  recall  your  visit  to  your  child- 


MEMORY.  109 

hood  home ;  your  first  teacher.     What  do  you  do  when 
you  remember? 

Elements  of  Acts  of  Memory. — You  discover  in  a  complete  act 
of  memory  four  elements — retention,  recollection,  association,  and 
recognition. 

1.  6>//,  as  memory,  stores  his  acquisitions.  I  know  the  multipli- 
cation-table. I  do  not  keep  it  in  consciousness,  but  I  can  recall  it  at 
will.  This  element  of  memory  is  called  retention.  I  meet  a  stran- 
ger ;  some  resemblance  calls  to  mind  a  friend.  That  some  charac- 
teristic of  that  friend  was  retained  seems  a  reasonable  inference. 
Otherwise,  how  could  the  resemblance  suggest  the  friend  ?  How 
these  keys  of  memory  are  kept  we  have  no  means  of  knowing.  The 
mind  is  not  Plato's  tablet,  nor  Cicero's  storehouse.  Neural  changes, 
fleeting  as  the  ripples  on  the  bosom  of  the  lake,  give  no  hint  of  past 
mental  acts.  That  self,  as  memory,  in  some  unknown  way  retains 
so  as  to  be  able  to  recall  his  acquisitions,  is  all  we  can  yet  say. 

2.  Self,  as  m^mary,  reproduces  his  experiences.  I  was  conscious 
of  seeing  General  Grant.  I  am  now  conscious  of  recalling  that  ex- 
perience. Again  the  silent  man  is  present.  This  element  of  mem- 
ory is  termed  recollection,  reproduction,  or  remembrance.  It  is  the 
essential  element,  and  hence  is  often  used  as  equivalent  to  memory. 

3.  Self,  as  memory^  restores  things  with  their  associations.  The 
rose  with  its  fragrance,  the  singer  with  the  song,  the  lover  with  his 
love,  Grant  with  his  staff,  are  represented  just  as  they  were  pre- 
sented. The  magic  changes  wrought  by  phantasy  and  imagination 
are  absolutely  distinct  from  the  work  of  memory.  Here  past  expe- 
riences with  all  the  objective  conditions  are  represented  without 
change.  This  element  of  memory  is  called  association^  because 
things  with  their  associations  are  made  again  present. 

4.  Self,  as  memory,  identifies  memories  and  experiences.  I  recall 
my  visit  to  Niagara ;  I  recognize  the  remembrance  as  a  former  expe- 
rience. I  meet  an  acquaintance ;  I  recognize  him.  This  element  of 
memory  is  called  recognition.  The  soul  retains  the  keys  to  its  ac- 
quisitions. Present  mental  acts,  by  means  of  these  keys,  restore  the 
past  The  object,  with  its  environments,  is  represented.  Finally, 
the  remembrances  are  recognized  as  identical  with  former  expe- 
riences. The  act  of  memory  is  complete.  You  may  distinguish  the 
four  elements  of  memory  in  the  following  lines : 

"  How  dear  to  my  heart  are  the  scenes  of  my  childhood, 
When  fond  recollection  (re)pre8ents  them  to  view  I" 


110       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Office  of  Memory. — Self,  as  memory,  stores,  repro- 
duces, and  recognizes  his  experiences.  This,  in  the 
mental  economy,  is  the  sole  function  of  memory. 
What  was  originally  present  in  consciousness  is  made 
present  again — is  represented.  Memory  is  the  mind 
remembering  past  experiences.  Retention,  association, 
and  recognition  are  incident  to  complete  reproduction, 
and  are  merely  elements  of  memory. 

It  is  the  function  of  memory  to  reproduce  all  forms  of  knowl- 
edge, and  to  know  the  representations  as  former  acquisitions.  Mem- 
ory utilizes  the  results  of  all  previous  cognitions.  Without  mem- 
ory, we  should  be  as  oblivious  of  the  past  as  we  are  ignorant  of  the 
future. 

Characteristics  of  Memory. — You  can  readily  distin- 
guish between  memory  and  other  faculties  by  noting 
two  marked  peculiarities  of  this  power  of  the  soul : 

1.  Self^  as  memory^  recalls  the  past.  Take  away 
memory,  and  all  the  past  would  be  a  blank.  Memory  is 
our  only  power  to  make  the  past  reappear. 

2.  Memory  identifies.  Memory  links  the  present 
with  the  past,  and  thus  we  maintain  our  personal  identity. 
Memory  identifies  recollections  as  former  experiences. 

3.  Memory  enters  into  all  mental  axitivity.  Self,  as 
consciousness,  unitizes  all  mental  acts ;  self,  as  memory, 
treasures  and  recalls  all.  Like  attention  and  conscious- 
ness, memory  enters  into  all  knowing,  all  feeling,  all 
willing.  You  attend.  You  perceive  the  coming  train. 
You  hasten  with  throbbing  heart  to  meet  a  long- absent 
brother.  You  are  conscious  of  each  act.  Years  pass. 
Now  you  vividly  /"^present  the  scene.  You  are  now 
conscious  of  recalling  a  past  experience.  Thus  is  woven 
the  web  of  mental  lifQ, 


MEMORY.  Ill 

Memory  defined. — Tlie  soul  is  endowed  with  powers 
or  faculties.  Wundt  tells  us  that  "faculties  are  distinct 
modes  of  psychical  activity."  Sense-perception  is  self 
perceiving  material  things.  Memory  is  self  recalling 
past  acquisitions : 

1.  Mernory  is  the  power  to  store  and  reproduce  expe- 
riences. We  recall  our  acquisitions  in  the  old  forms  in 
which  we  experienced  them,  and  we  recognize  them  as 
former  experiences. 

2.  Original.  Put  your  conception  of  memory  in 
your  own  words.  Until  made  your  own,  and  translated 
into  your  own  language,  the  thoughts  of  others  are 
oftener  an  injury  than  a  benefit.  So  familiar  seems  to 
you  the  memory  notion  that  there  is  danger  of  super- 
ficial work. 

3.  Various  Definitions. — Mansel  :  Memory  is  the  power  of  the 
mind  to  reproduce  its  own  acts.  Schuylee  :  Memory  is  the  power 
to  recall  previous  cognitions.  Bascom  :  Memory  is  the  power  of  re- 
calling the  phenomena  of  consciousness.  McCosh  :  Memory  is  self 
rHmembering.  White:  Memory  is  the  power  to  reknow  objects 
previously  known.  Everett:  Memory  is  the  power  to  reproduce 
and  recognize  former  knowledge. 

Memory-Knowledge. — The  products  of  memory  are 
called  memories,  recollections,  remembrances.  **  Memo- 
ries of  other  days,"  "sweet  recollections,"  and  "kind  re- 
membrances," are  some  of  our  most  familiar  expressions. 
Original  mental  products  are  called  percepts,  concepts, 
ideals,  and  judgments.  Memory-products  are  termed 
r^percepts,  /"^-concepts,  and  r^-judgments : 

1.  A  remembered  percept  is  a  re-percept.  Yester- 
day I  saw  a  dove.  Self,  as  sense-perception,  intuitively 
formed  the  percept — this  dove.     To-day  I  recall  this 


J[12       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

percept.     Again  the  dove  is  present.     The  idea — this 
dove — is  now  a  remembered  percept,  a  T'^percept. 

2.  A  remembered  concept  is  a  re-concept.  From  the 
percepts,  this  triangle,  and  this,  and  this,  I  discern  the 
general  notion,  three-angledness.  I  embody  this  abstract 
general  notion  or  concept  in  the  word  triangle.  When 
I  recall  the  concept  triangle  it  is  a  remembered  concept, 
a  /'^-concept. 

3.  Memories  are  intellectual  products.  Emotions 
and  volitions  are  strung  on  ideas,  as  pearls  on  threads 
of  gold.  Last  week  a  friend  did  me  a  kind  act.  I  per- 
ceived the  kind  act  and  felt  gratitude.  I  now  recall 
that  kind  act,  and  also  the  fact  that  I  felt  gratitude. 
The  T'^-percept — that  kind  act — occasions  a  feeling  of 
gratitude,  but  it  is  a  new  feeling.  We  can  not  make 
present  again  past  feelings  or  past  vohtions.  We  re- 
call intellectual  products  only.  Memories  are  intellect- 
ual products. 

Experiences  and  Memories. — We  recall  our  former 
experiences.  Our  remembrances  are  unmodified  tran- 
scripts of  our  experiences.  Memory  7'^resents  acqui- 
sitions in  the  old  forais  of  experience.  Some  relations, 
however,  deserve  careful  study  : 

1.  Hemembrances  suggest  hut  do  not  resemble  the 
original  objects.  The  soul  creates  the  mental  objects 
which  it  recalls.  The  landscape,  the  odor,  the  song,  are 
remembered  as  former  experiences.  There  is  a  corre- 
spondence, but  we  can  make  no  comparison  between  a 
percept  or  r^percept  and  a  material  object.  We  do 
not  form  images  of  sounds,  or  odors,  or  flavors,  or  text- 
ures, or  weights,  or  temperatures. 

Sense-perception  does  not  give  copies  of  external 


MEMORY.  113 

objects.  Self  interprets  the  qualities  or  signs  of  mate- 
rial objects  and  groups  these  into  percepts.  When  re- 
called, these  /-^-percepts  suggest  but  do  not  resemble  the 
original  objects.  By  keeping  this  fact  in  mind  you  will 
avoid  much  error  and  confusion. 

2.  Hemembrancea  consist  of  fewer  details  than  the 
original  objects.  But  these  skeletons  are  better  in  most 
cases  for  thought  purposes  than  the  real  objects.  The 
mind  seizes  on  the  essentials,  and  is  not  confused  by 
multitudinous  details.  In  thought  and  imagination  we 
deal  with  our  revived  notions  of  things. 

3.  RememhroMces  ordinarily  awaken  less  intense 
emotion  than  experiences.  Some  are  more  deeply  af- 
fected by  recollections  than  others,  because  of  their  abil- 
ity to  reproduce  more  vividly  past  experiences.  Some 
even  intensify  memories  by  thought  and  imagination, 
and  thus  deepen  the  feelings.  But,  as  a  rule,  memories 
create  less  and  less  emotion,  until  we  are  able  to  con- 
template even  the  death  of  a  mother  with  composure. 

Attention,  Consciousness,  and  Memory. — Penetrating 
and  prolonged  attention  gives  clear  consciousness  and 
good  memory.  These  three  activities  enter  into  all  dis- 
tinct mental  work.  Self,  as  attention,  concentrates  his 
efforts ;  self,  as  consciousness,  perceives  himself  know- 
ing, feeling,  and  willing ;  self,  as  memory,  reproduces 
without  change  his  past  acquisitions.  We  are  conscious 
of  what  is  passing  around  us  and  within  us  when  we  give 
attention.  We  remember  only  those  things  of  which 
we  have  been  conscious.  Slight  attention,  dim  conscious- 
ness, and  faulty  memory  go  together.  The  more  com- 
plete the  attention  the  more  distinct  will  be  the  con- 
sciousness and  the  more  tenacious  will  be  the  memory. 


114       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


Laws  of  Memory. 

A  law  is  a  uniform  way  in  which  an  energy  acts. 
The  uniform  ways  in  which  the  soul  acts  in  recalling 
past  acquisitions  are  called  the  laws  of  memory.  It  is 
not  an  accident  that  I  remember  this  and  not  that. 
Law  reigns  in  the  world  of  mind.  Three  memory-laws 
are  well  recognized  :  the  law  of  the  brain,  the  law  of 
acquisition,  and  the  law  of  suggestion. 

L  Law  of  the  Brain. — Memory  depends  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  hrain.  When  my  brain  is  in  good  con- 
dition, I  remember  readily ;  but  when  tired  out,  or  suf- 
fering from  a  severe  attack  of  sick-headache,  I  recollect 
with  difficulty  and  very  imperfectly.  The  Rev.  John 
Applegate  received  a  blow  which  indented  a  small  por- 
tion of  his  skull.  For  a  year  the  past  was  blotted  out, 
but,  as  soon  as  the  indented  portion  of  the  skull  was 
removed,  he  remembered  as  he  did  before  receiving  the 
injury.  Each  one  can  verify  this  law  by  his  own  expe- 
rience and  observation.  However  explained,  we  can  not 
deny  the  fact  that  good  digestion  favors  good  memory. 

1.  Vigorous  health  is  the  first  requirement  of  the  law  of  the 
brain.  As  a  rule,  the  cerebrum,  the  immediate  organism  through 
which  the  mind  acts,  is  a  fit  instrument  for  mental  activity  in  the 
ratio  of  physical  vigor.  It  is  certain  that  good  memory  and  good 
health  are  closely  related.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  better 
your  physical  condition,  the  better  will  be  your  memory. 

2.  Frequent  change  is  the  second  requirement  of  the  law  of  the 
brain.  Different  mental  acts  call  into  activity  different  ganglionic 
areas.  The  study  of  physical  science  calls  into  activity  some  portions 
of  the  cerebrum,  while  mathematics,  literature,  and  art  call  into  ac- 
tivity other  parts.  A  profound  physiological  and  psychical  law  un- 
derlies the  practice  of  all  schools,  from  the  primary  to  the  university, 


MEMORY.  115 

in  giving  daily  lessons  in  each  of  the  four  great  departments  named. 
Thus'  ail  the  mental  faculties  are  judiciously  exercised,  and  different 
ganglia  are  successively  called  into  activity.  Continually  thinking 
on  one  subject  inflames  the  portion  of  the  brain  so  overworked. 
Memory,  as  well  as  thought,  becomes  confused.  It  is  not  so  much 
the  wear  of  a  single  effort,  but  it  is  the  monotonous  beat  upon  beat, 
stroke  upon  stroke,  always  in  the  same  place.  As  drops  of  water 
wear  away  stones,  so  a  long  series  of  reiterated  mental  blows  will 
shiver  the  golden  bowl. 

3.  Effort  must  stop  short  of  exhaustion  is  the  third  requirement 
of  the  law  of  the  brain.  Exhaustion  weakens.  Nearly  all  the  evil 
effects  of  hard  study  come  from  carrying  effort  to  exhaustion.  Let 
the  student  work  vigorously  for  forty  minutes,  and  rest  and  recreate 
twenty  minutes  out  of  each  hour.  He  will  grow  stronger,  and  will 
in  the  end  learn  double  as  much  as  the  student  who  pores  over  his 
books  hour  after  hour.  Memory  will  become  accurate  and  distinct. 
Most  young  children  in  our  schools  suffer  severe  injury  from  the 
constant  violation  of  this  requirement.  A  recess  each  hour,  or  some 
equivalent,  is  imperative. 

n.  Law  of  Acquisition. — The  mind  tends  to  recall 
what  is  thA)roughly  known.  Self  tends  to  repeat  his 
acts.  What  we  have  done  we  tend  to  do  again.  The 
mind  tends  to  act  as  it  has  acted  before.  When  we 
know  things  thoroughly  we  can  recall  them  readily  and 
accurately.  Each  repetition  gives  increased  facility  in 
recalling.     Thus  habits  are  formed. 

1.  This  law  requires  interested  attention.  In  order  to  know 
thoroughly,  we  must  feel  a  deep  interest  in  the  subject  and  give  our 
entire  attention  to  its  mastery.  The  more  complete  the  attention, 
the  greater  the  tendency  to  recall.  We  remember  in  the  ratio  of  our 
attention.  When  we  concentrate  all  our  energies  upon  a  subject 
and  examine  it  closely  for  a  considerable  time,  we  fix  the  matter  in 
our  minds.  Such  acquisitions  are  readily  recalled.  The  wise  teacher 
creates  and  sustains  intense  interest,  and  thus  secures  complete  at- 
tention and  good  memory.  The  wise  student  bends  all  his  energies 
to  the  work  in  hand.  What  he  thus  acquires  he  knows  thoroughly 
and  recalls  readily. 


116       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY   AND   EDUCATION. 

2.  This  law  requires  vividness  of  apprehension.  The  mind  most 
readily  recalls  that  which  it  vividly  apprehends.  What  is  indis- 
tinctly and  partially  grasped  will  soon  be  forgotten.  The  more 
vivid  and  complete  the  apprehension,  the  better  will  be  the  recollec- 
tion. Listless  persons  are  notorious  for  poor  memories.  Wide- 
awake persons  rarely  complaia  of  forgetf ulness. 

3.  This  law  requires  frequency  of  repetition.  What  is  often  re- 
called, and  in  various  relations,  is  easily  reproduced.  When  the 
intervals  are  short,  each  repetition  deepens  the  impression  and 
strengthens  the  tendency  to  persist.  The  wise  teacher  makes  each 
lesson  a  review  of  previous  lessons.  The  wise  student  never  becomes 
*'  rusty,"  but  keeps  his  acquisitions  bright  by  use.  The  old  man  re- 
members things  of  his  childhood  so  vividly  because  he  has  reviewed 
them  so  often. 

in.  Law  of  Suggestion. — Present  experiences  tend  to 
suggest  past  experiences.  "By  a  wonderful  process, 
which  is  sometimes  called  mental  suggestion  or  associa- 
tion, we  find  that  every  thought  and  action  in  a  long 
life  links  itself  with  some  other  thought  or  action.  No 
mental  act  is  completely  isolated.  No  act,  even  of  per- 
ception, takes  place  without  associating  itself  with  some 
previous  thought,  or  suggesting  a  new  one."  * 

Methods  of  association  and  suggestion.  There  are 
five  ways  in  which  experiences  are  associated,  and  in 
which  ideas  tend  to  suggest  one  another.  "  These  seem 
to  me  to  be  original  and  irreducible ;  at  least,  no  re- 
duction of  them  can  be  made  that  will  be  of  practical 
value.  They  will  remain  the  separate  working  meth- 
ods of  suggestion,  and  must  be  studied  as  sucli."t 
By  five  circles  we  may  fitly  represent  our  experiences 
as  linked  together  in  five  distinct  ways.  By  having 
each  circle  cut  all  the  other  circles,  it  is  intended  to 
indicate  the  truth  that  the  suggestion  may  occur  in 

*riske.  t  Hopkins. 


MEMORY. 


117 


any  one  of  these  ^ve  ways.     The  possibilities  of  re- 
calling are  thus  multiplied  many  fold. 


RESEMBLANCE 


CONTIGUITY 


ANALOGY 


1.  Eesemblance. — Resembling  objects  tend  to  bring  up  each  other. 
Like  tends  to  recall  like.  This  cottage  reminds  me  of  ray  child- 
hood home.  The  youth  I  just  met  called  back  to  mind  my  col- 
lege friend.  Similar  sounds  and  odors  and  flavors  and  emotions 
tend  to  suggest  each  other.  But  it  is  needless  to  multiply  examoles. 
Each  moment  you  may  observe  the  workings  of  this  law.  You  may 
give  several  illustrations  from  your  own  experience. 

2.  Contrail. — Contrnsted  objects  tend  to  bring  up  ea^h  other, 
Dissimilars  recall  dissimilars.   Darkness  suggests  light,  pain  suggests 


118       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

pleasure,  evil  suggests  good,  death  suggests  life.    You  may  give  ex- 
amples in  your  own  experience. 

3.  Contiguity. — Experiences  which  occur  together  tend  to  suggest 
each  other.  This  is  the  great  central  method  of  association  and 
suggestion.  Places  and  things  near  together  suggest  each  other. 
Versailles  suggests  Paris,  Brooklyn  suggests  New  York.  Places  also 
suggest  events  occurring  at  or  near  them.  Philadelphia  suggests 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  West  Point  suggests  Arnold's 
treason.  Contiguous  occurrences  tend  to  bring  up  each  other.  Ideas 
which  have  been  in  the  mind  at  the  same  time  tend  to  recall  each 
other.  Experiences  which  occur  together  or  in  immediate  succession 
tend  to  suggest  each  other.  You  see  two  persons  together.  The 
sight  of  one  will  tend  to  suggest  the  other.  Association  of  words, 
of  sounds,  of  thoughts,  of  forms  occurring  together  are  of  this  kind. 
Events  occurring  near  together  are  thus  associated.  Waterloo  sug- 
gests St.  Helena.  Of  a  group  of  contemporaneous  events,  each  sug- 
gests the  adjacent  links,  and  so  on.  You  may  give  illustrations  from 
your  experience. 

4.  Correlation. — Correlated  ideas  lend  to  bring  up  each  other. 
Dependent  and  related  ideas  tend  to  suggest  each  other.  The  end 
suggests  the  means,  the  effect  the  cause,  the  conclusion  the  premises. 
Things  related  suggest  each  other.  Signs  suggest  the  signification, 
as  the  mathematical  signs.  The  sword  suggests  power.  What  is 
suggested  by  the  flag,  the  cross,  the  crown,  the  altar,  the  pulpit,  the 
platform  f 

Certain  sounds  or  sights  have  come  to  awaken  in  our  minds 
ideas,  and  they  are  ideas  which  have  been  associated  by  the  eye  and 
by  the  ear.  In  other  words,  things  seen  and  things  heard  suggest 
not  themselves,  but  something  else  that  stood  in  connection  with 
them.  Human  language,  whether  spoken  or  written,  is  an  extended 
illustration  of  this  law  of  suggestion.  We  have  come  by  this  law 
to  have  certain  thoughts  arise  in  the  mind  when  certain  words  are 
presented  to  us.  There  is  no  reason  why  horse  should  instantly 
bring  up  the  picture  of  a  horse,  except  that  we  have  associated  with 
that  word  that  animal. 

5.  Analogy. — Things  analogous  tend  to  bring  up  each  other. 
The  river  rolling  on  for  ever  suggests  the  endless  flight  of  time; 
spring  suggests  youth,  and  winter  old  age.  White  suggests  purity, 
and  purple  suggests  royalty.  Analogies  more  or  less  striking  per- 
vade the  thought-world. 


MEMORY. 


119 


Marvelous,  almost  infi- 
nite, are  the  associations  of 
ideas,  emotions,  actions. 
The  law  of  suggestion 
works  wonders,  and  the 
most  wonderful  of  all  is 
the  power  to  call  back  to 
consciousness  the  experi- 
ences of  a  long  life. 

Forgetting. — It  is  a  be- 
neficent law  that  evil,  pain- 
ful, and  unimportant  things 
shall  fade  from  memory. 
We  refuse  to  recall  what 
would  give  us  pain  or 
uselessly  burden  memory. 
This  is  the  true  Lethe.  On 
the  other  hand,  we  live 
over  and  over  again  our 
joyful  experiences,  and  they 
stay  with  us  forever.  For- 
getting is  as  necessary  to  a 
happy  life  as  remembering. 

Growth  of  Memory. — 
The  early  activity  of  memo- 
ry is  a  familiar  fact.  When 
a  few  weeks  old  the  infant 
recognizes  its  nurse,  and 
when  a  few  months  old  it 
recognizes  words  as  the 
signs  of  ideas.  Objective, 
or    concrete    memory    be- 


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120       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

comes  quite  active  during  tlie  second  year,  and  reach- 
es full  activity  about  the  tenth  year.  Childhood  is 
peculiarly  the  time  to  cultivate  concrete  memory,  or 
memory  of  things  and  concrete  facts.  About  the  tenth 
year  the  pupil  begins  to  acquire  and  recall  readily 
semi-abstractions,  or  the  concrete  and  the  abstract  com- 
bined. By  the  fourteenth  year  abstract  memory,  or 
memory  of  classifications,  principles,  and  inferences,  is 
quite  active,  and  seems  to  be  fully  active  at  eighteen. 
From  the  tenth  year  to  the  eighteenth  year  is  pre-emi- 
nently the  period  for  the  higher  forms  of  memory-cult- 
ure. In  manhood,  memory  is  kept  vigorous  by  use,  and 
certainly  may  be  greatly  strengthened  in  special  direc- 
tions. Even  the  aged  may,  by  systematic  effort,  keep 
memory  strong.  The  tendency  to  live  exiled  in  the 
past  should  be  resisted.  The  world  is  full  of  new  beauty 
and  new  truth.  Let  the  aged  keep  en  rajpjport  with  the 
present,  and  keep  memory  vigorous  by  constantly  re- 
calling recent  acquisitions. 

Development  of  Memory.* — We  recall  most  readily 
what  we  apprehend  most  clearly.  Persistent  effort  in 
faithfully  reproducing  our  past  experiences  educates 
memory.  A  good  memory  is  of  incalculable  value.  It 
enables  us  to  compare,  combine,  and  firmly  interlock 
past  and  present  acquisitions.  One  with  a  poor  mem- 
ory gropes  in  the  dark.  Because  he  can  not  command 
his  facts,  he  can  not  do  effective  thinking.  Great  men 
have  almost  invariably  possessed  great  memories. 

[As  a  magnet  will  increase  its  force  if  a  slight  increase  is  made 
daily  to  the  weight  it  supports,  so  the  memory  of  numbers,  dates, 
facts,  and  principles  may  be  indefinitely  increased  by  committing 

♦  See  "  EducaUon  of  Memory  "  in  "  Applied  Psychology  and  Teaching." 


MEMORY.  121 

an  additional  one  or  two  each  day  to  memory,  and  taking  care  by 
frequent  reviews  that  nothing  once  memorized  shall  escape.  But 
equal  care  should  be  taken  not  to.  overburden  the  power  of  recollec- 
tion by  undertaking  too  many  new  items  at  a  time.  Let  the  stiuUnt 
make  a  special  effort  with  precisely  the  kind  of  recollection  that  he 
is  most  deficient  in,  be  it  names,  dates,  shapes,  or  whatever  it  be,  and 
he  will  find  that,  by  persistent  practice  for  a  few  months,  he  can 
bring  the  special  power  to  the  front.  The  habit  of  attention  to  like- 
ness and  difference,  so  that  the  mind  at  once  takes  in  the  species 
and  differentia  involuntarily,  is  the  habit  that  secures  good  memory.] 

Systematic  and  persistent  exercise  in  recalling  tends 
to  develop  memory.  A  plan  of  work  that  secures  such 
exercise  may  be  called  a  method  of  educating  this 
power.  Good  study  and  good  teaching  promote  the 
growth  of  memory. 

Comparative  Psychology. — The  brute  associates  im- 
pressions, and  present  impressions  suggest  to  it  former 
impressions.  The  brute  recalls  its  past  experiences.  As 
animal  experience  is  limited  to  the  sensuous,  so  brute 
recollection  is  limited  to  recalling  sensuous  impressions. 
Impressions  are  vague  intellectual  products  lower  than 
ideas.  That  present  impressions  tend  to  suggest  past 
impressions  is  the  great  law  of  brute  memory. 

8U00E8TIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

Seview. — Explain  intuition.  Why  are  the  perceptive  faculties 
called  intuitive  powers?  Define  each  of  the  perceptive  powers. 
Distinguish  sense-percepts,  conscious-percepts,  and  noumenal-pcr- 
cepts.  Give  two  examples  of  each.  Etc.  Take  your  examples  and 
illustrations  largely  from  the  studies  you  are  now  pursuing.  One 
example  from  your  own  experience  may  be  worth  more  to  you  than 
ten  from  other  sources'. 

What  is  meant  by  representation  t  By  representative  powers  f 
What  other  names  are  applied  to  these  powers!  Name  the  three 
representative  faculties.    Give  an  example  of  each  activity. 


122       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Analyze  an  act  of  memory.  "What  four  points  do  you  discover? 
Why  do  you  call  these  elements  of  memory  f  Does  each  complete 
act  of  memory  involve  these  elements  ? 

Explain  retention.  Illustrate.  What  is  retained  ?  Explain  rec- 
ollection. Give  synonyms.  Illustrate.  Explain  association.  Illus- 
trate.    Explain  recognition.     Give  examples. 

Describe  the  office  of  memory.  What  do  you  mean  by  the 
function  of  a  faculty  ?  What  do  you  mean  by  a  faculty  ?  Give  two 
characteristics  of  memory.  Give  a  distinction  between  conscious- 
ness and  memory. 

State  the  author's  definition  of  memory ;  your  definition ;  Ev- 
erett's definition. 

Give  synonyms  of  memories.  Illustrate  each.  What  is  a  per- 
cept? A  re-percept?  Why  do  you  call  recollections  intellect- 
ual? Give  three  points  of  difference  between  experiences  and 
memories. 

What  do  you  mean  by  energy  ?  by  soul-energies  ?  by  law  ?  by 
laws  of  memory  ?  Give  the  law  of  the  brain.  Give  and  explain  its 
three  requirements.  Give  the  law  of  acquisition.  Give  and  explain 
its  three  requirements. 

Explain  association  and  suggestion.  Give  the  five  ways  in 
which  ideas  suggest  each  other.  Illustrate  by  circles.  Give  the  law 
of  resemblance.  Give  three  examples.  Explain  the  law  of  con- 
trast. Illustrate  the  law  of  contiguity.  Give  the  law  of  correla- 
tion ;  also  of  analogy.     Give  examples  of  each. 

What  do  you  mean  by  the  growth  of  memory?  Explain  the 
diagram  showing  the  stages  of  memory-growth.  What  is  meant  by 
educating  memory?    How  may  you  improve  your  memory? 

Give  your  explanation  of  brute  memory.  How  does  brute  mem- 
ory differ  from  human  memory? 

State  the  law  of  forgetfulness.  Why  is  it  important  to  be  able 
to  forget  ?    What  should  we  forget  ?    How  do  we  forget  ? 

Letter. — Show  your  friend  that  graphic  and  other  devices  are 
designed  to  aid  him  to  gain  clear  views  of  self ;  but  insist  on  his 
verifying  everything  for  himself  by  constantly  looking  within.  Try 
to  interest  him  in  the  improvement  of  his  memory. 


MEMORY. 


123 


Topical  Analysis  of  Chapter  X. — Memory. 


I.  Elements  of  Memory. 

Retention. 
Recollection. 

IL   Office  of  Memory. 

IIL  Characteristics  of  Memory. 

Memory  reproduces. 
Memory  attends  all  knowing. 

IV.  Memory  Defined. 

Author's  definition. 
Original  definition. 

v.  Memory-Knowledge* 

Names. 

Memories.         Recollections. 
Re-percepts  and  Re-concepts. 
Intellectual  products. 

YI.  Experiences  and  Memories. 

VII.  Memory  and  other  faculties. 

VIII.  Laws  of  Memory. 

Law  of  the  brain. 
Law  of  acquisition. 
Law  of  suggestion. 

Resemblance.         Contiguity. 

Contrast.  Correlation. 

Law  of  forgetting. 

IX  Growth  of  Memory* 

In  childhood.  In  youth. 

X.  Development  of  Memory* 

Time.  Means. 

XI.  Comparative  Psychology* 

Human  memory. 


Representation. 
Recognition. 


Various  definitions. 


Remembrances. 


Analogy. 

In  manhood. 
Methods. 
Brute  memory. 


10 


124       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY   AND  EDUCATION. 


CHAPTER  XL 

PHANTASY. 

By  this,  is  meant  the  power  to  represent  spontane- 
ouslj  our  experiences  in  new  forms  which  seem  to  be 
realities.  Without  purpose,  the  soul  weaves  into  curious 
shapes  its  experiences.  Self,  as  phantasy,  does  not  cre- 
ate ideals,  but  merely  conjoins  experiences  in  new  ways. 

The  soul  is  ever  active.  Intentional  activity  exhausts 
the  physical  organism.  The  brain  needs  rest.  "When 
I  cease  to  think,  and  float  off  into  dream-land,  the  brain 
rests,  recuperates,  but  the  soul  continues  its  ceaseless 
activity.  Self  for  his  own  amusement  images  an  end- 
less panorama.  In  re  very,  as  in  sleep,  an  endless  chain 
of  phantom-forms  is  ever  passing.  These  pictures  we 
call  phantasms,  and  the  power  to  produce  them  we  term 
phantasy.* 

Self,  as  memory,  reproduces  his  past  experiences  un- 
changed. However  faint  our  recollections,  we  recog- 
nize them  as  past  experiences.  But,  in  revery  and  in 
dreams,  our  experiences,  strangely  modified,  are  /'^-pre- 
sented.    Memory  and  sensation  furnish  materials.     Self, 

*  Tins  form  of  representation  has  been  sliglited  by  many  psychologists. 
Most  have  treated  it  as  a  phase  of  imagination.  I  consider  phantasy  a  dis- 
tinct form  of  representation.  This  view  seems  to  me  to  greatly  simplify  the 
subject.  This  orthography  is  preferred,  because  phantasy  in  this  sense  is 
a  delinite  term.  Webster  says:  "A  phantasm  is  an  image  formed  by  the 
mind  and  supposed  to  be  real."  Phantasy,  as  here  used,  is  the  power  to 
form  phantasms.  Fancy,  a  contraction  for  phantasy,  is  now  used  in  so 
many  senses  as  to  be  extremely  objectionable. 


PHANTASY.  126 

as  phantasy,  weaves  the  materials  into  grotesque  and 
fantastic  groups  called  phantasms.  At  the  time  these 
seem  to  us  objective  realities.  They  often  seem  so 
real  that  we  are  surprised  to  find  them  phantoms  of 
our  brains. 

Acts  of  Phantasy  Analyzed. — We  are  conscious  of  the 
acts  of  self  as  phantasy.  We  are  able  to  recall  and  ex- 
amine some  of  these  acts.  Nothing  is  more  common 
than  dream-telHng.  Let  us  examine  a  day-dream.  I 
was  resting  in  my  easy-chair.  I  ceased  all  intentional 
effort,  and  my  senses  ceased  to  bring  me  messages  from 
the  outer  world.  I  drift  into  revery-land.  "  A  beauti- 
ful flower-garden  surrounds  me.  A  sparkling  fountain 
is  near  me.  Floating  on  the  Uttle  lake  are  three  swans. 
A  bevy  of  lovely  girls,  seated  in  a  boat,  cheer  me  with 
laughter  and  song.  One" — the  door-bell  aroused  me, 
and  the  scene  vanished.  At  the  time  all  seemed  real. 
AVhen  aroused,  I  knew  that  the  picture  was  the  work  of 
phantasy.  Relate  a  day-dream  and  also  a  night-dream. 
Show  the  work  of  phantasy. 

Office  of  Phantasy. — Phantasy  is  the  power  to  weave 
our  experiences  into  phantasms. 

1.  Self  ^  (IS  phantcbsy^  aggregates  his  experiences.  In 
this  form  of  representation  self,  as  memory,  merely  re- 
calls without  recognizing  experiences.  Phantasy  con- 
joins experiences,  immediate  and  revived.  The  material 
is  not  analyzed ;  it  is  merely  joined  together,  or  aggre- 
gated.    Phantasy  represents  experiences  in  new  forms. 

2.  Phantasy  gives  hints  to  memory,  imagination^ 
and  thought.  In  discerning  class-notions,  the  vague, 
shadowy  phantasm  dimly  outlines  the  concept.  "We  see 
three-sidedness,  but  the  comers  are  blurred.    We  see 


126       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

the  soldier,  but  shadows  conceal  his  uniform  and  armor. 
Hints  of  phantasy  doubtless  help  imagination  to  some 
of  its  grandest  achievements.  Phantasms  often  suggest 
realities. 

3.  Phantasy  is  the  safety-^alve  of  the  soul.  Death 
of  brain-fiber  follows  each  thought,  emotion,  and  pur- 
pose. A  few  hours  of  vigorous  study  exhaust  the  work- 
ing brain.  The  soul  is  ceaselessly  active.  Phantasy, 
we  infer,  acts  through  brain-areas  not  exhausted  by  in- 
tentional activity.  While  the  working  brain  recuper- 
ates, the  soul  amuses  itself  with  vivacious  picture-groups. 

Characteristics  of  Phantasy. — We  study  the  phenom- 
ena of  mental  action  in  revery  and  dreams.  We  dis- 
cover a  new  world  called  dream-land.  We  find  that 
the  soul  is  endowed  with  the  capability  to  produce 
phantasms. 

1.  Phantasy  is  undirected  representation.  To  give 
the  weary  brain  rest,  self^  ceasing  to  acquire  and  direct, 
drifts  off  into  the  land  of  shadows.  Spontaneously  the 
mind  forms  grotesque  and  shadowy  panoramas.  Self,  as 
phantasy,  is  a  kaleidoscope. 

2.  Phantasy  is  lawless  representation.  The  real 
world  disappears  and  the  shadowy  world  seems  the  real 
world.  The  soul  feels  joy  or  sorrow  in  view  of  these 
phantasms.  The  laws  of  time  and  place  and  sequence 
are  ignored.  The  sea  is  crossed  in  a  moment.  Snow- 
castles  are  as  warm  as  summer  bowers. 

3.  Phantasy  is  self -drifting.  We  seem  to  be  spec- 
tators. We  see  ourselves  sicken  and  die.  We  attend 
our  own  funerals.  We  do  not  usually  remember  our 
dreams  because  we  do  not  consciously  connect  the 
waking  and  the  shadowy  worlds,     Self,  as  phantasy, 


PHANTASY.  127 

drifts,  scribbles.  The  record  is  indistinct,  for  there  is 
little  or  no  attention.  These  phantasms  are  not  worth 
preserving.  They  do  not  connect  with  our  waking  ac- 
tivities. They  fade  away  like  the  morning  mists.  It 
is  well. 

4.  Phantasy  ^pleases  and  refreshes.  It  is  the  play 
faculty  of  the  soul.  When  we  are  at  peace  with  our 
stomachs,  ourselves,  our  neighbors,  and  our  Creator,  we 
have  refreshing  sleep  and  pleasant  dreams. 

Phantasy  Defined. — As  phantasy,  self  blends  tlie  ob- 
jective and  subjective.  The  soul  drifts.  Without  effort 
and  without  intention  it  Hnks  fancy  unto  fancy.  During 
revery  and  sleep  our  phantasms  seem  to  us  to  be  objec- 
tive realities.  The  products  of  phantasy  are  concrete, 
and  have  in  all  cases  a  material  basis.  Our  phantasms 
are  limited  to  our  experiences.  The  phantasms  of  the 
blind  are  colorless  ;  those  of  the  deaf,  soundless. 

1.  Phantasy  is  the  capability  of  self  to  rq^resent 
spontaneously  his  experiences  in  new  forms  called  phan- 
tasms. A  phantasm  is  a  crude  picture-group  which 
seems  to  be  an  objective  reality.  At  the  time  we  are 
conscious  of  our  phantasms,  but  not  of  self  making 
them  out  of  his  revived  experiences.  As  phantasy  is 
the  dominant  activity  in  dreams  and  revery,  this  form 
of  representation  is  called  phantasy. 

2.  Original.  Give  your  definition  of  this  power. 
Try  to  sharply  distinguish  memory  and  phantasy. 

3.  Various  Definitions.— Porter  :  Phantasy  is  the  power  to  bring 
before  the  mind  images  severed  from  all  relations.  Schuyler  :  Phan- 
tasy is  the  power  to  produce  a  series  of  images  of  which  it  is  itself 
a  spectator.  Hopkins  :  The  soul  as  phantasy  is  the  spontaneous 
source  of  reveries  and  dreams.  White  :  Phantasy  is  the  power  to 
spontaneously  make  phantasms  which  seem  realities. 


128       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Relations  of  Phantasy  to  the  other  Faculties. — The 

psychologist  ventures  modestly  here.  The  phantom- 
world  is  the  real  wonder-land.  Many  problems  remain 
unsolved. 

1.  Phantasy  and  memory.  Self,  as  memory,  revives 
his  experiences ;  seK,  as  phantasy,  weaves  these  expe- 
riences into  new  forms  called  phantasms.  In  dream- 
land we  recognize  former  dreams  as  ours,  but  recogni- 
tion of  our  waking  activities  is  wanting.  Phantasms 
are  designed  for  temporary  amusement,  and  it  is  not  the 
business  of  memory  to  retain  them. 

2.  Phantasy  and  the  emotions.  The  sleeping  child 
laughs  or  weeps.  The  criminal  undergoes  the  agonies 
of  execution  in  his  dreams.  Phantasms  stir  the  emo- 
tions only  less  than  the  realities.  "  I  felt  glad  when  I 
awoke  and  found  it  all  a  dream." 

3.  Phantasy  and  will.  During  re  very  and  dreams, 
the  soul,  as  will,  is  ordinarily  almost  passive.  The  ac- 
tivity of  phantasy  is  unintentional  and  undirected.  The 
absence  of  attention  accounts  largely  for  our  inability 
to  recall  phantasms. 

4.  Phantasy  and  the  thinking  faculties.  In  rev- 
ery  and  dreams,  fortunately,  the  thought-element  is 
deficient.  The  exhausted  thought-ganglia  need  rest. 
Phantasy  sometimes  aids  thought  by  vaguely  picturing 
concepts,  judgments,  and  arguments,  and  thought  is 
sometimes  abnormally  active  during  disturbed  sleep. 

5.  Phantasy  and  imagination.  Phantasy  is  slightly 
active  during  our  waking  hours,  and  its  imagery  con- 
stantly furnishes  hints  to  imagination  and  thought. 
Imagination  is  more  or  less  active  during  sleep,  and 
sometimes  develops  phantasms  into  ideals. 


Pn.VNTASY.  129 

These  are  general  statements.  In  fact,  the  soul  in 
all  its  powers  may  be  active  in  some  degree  during 
sleep.  The  character  of  our  phantasms  depends  largely 
on  the  relative  activity  of  our  various  capabilities. 
When  reason  is  active,  our  phantasms  become  debates. 
When  will  is  active,  our  phantasms  become  actions. 
When  emotion  is  active,  our  phantasms  become  love- 
scenes. 

Phantasy  in  Dreams. — It  is  certain  that  nutrition 
of  brain  and  nerves  is  at  its  maximum  during  sound 
sleep.  The  dead  tissue  caused  by  mental  effort  is  re- 
moved and  replaced  by  living  tissue.  Retarded  cere- 
bral circulation  renders  the  brain  unfit  for  thought 
purposes.  Self  ceases  from  volitional  activity.  The 
body  reposes  and  recuperates.  This  is  sleep.  With 
aw^e  and  doubt  the  psychologist  attempts  to  explore 
dream-land.  He  finds  amid  much  uncertainty  some 
well-established  truths : 

1.  Sdf  never  ceases  to  act.  During  sleep  the  activity  is  almost 
purely  autxjraatic.  Because  of  its  evident  activity  in  dreams,  because 
there  are  no  indications  of  dreamless  sleep,  and  because  we  never 
find  it  inactive,  we  infer  the  continued  activity  of  the  soul  during 
the  profoundest  slumber. 

2.  Self  is  not  conscious  that  dreams  are  psychical  acts.  Dream- 
land seems  to  be  real  land.  We  are  conscious  of  dream  phenomena, 
but  are  not  conscious  at  the  time  that  our  dreams  are  creations  of 
the  mind.  To  this  statement  there  are  apparent  exceptions.  In  pro- 
found sleep  dreams  are  not  usually  remembered,  but  is  not  the  soul 
conscious  at  the  time  of  the  passing  phantasms! 

8.  Self,  as  will,  acts  feebly,  if  at  all.  in  sleep.  The  soul  floats 
in  the  mists  of  dream-land.  No  attention,  no  directed  effort,  no  vol- 
untary action  disturbs  deep  sleep. 

4.  Self  as  thought,  is  quiescent.  In  disturbed  sleep,  the  thinking 
faculties  may  be  more  or  less  active,  and  sometimes  are  very  active. 
We  even  solve  problems  that  we  could  not  solve  while  awake.    The 


130       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

rule,  however,  holds  good :  thought  is  largely  absent  from  our  re- 
freshing dreams. 

5.  Organic  sensations  modify  dreams.  The  special  senses  cease 
to  report  ordinary  excitations.  The  ears  and  the  nose,  as  well  as  the 
eyes,  are  closed.  But  the  conditions  of  the  stomach  and  other  organs 
strangely  affect  our  dreams.  How  do  late  suppers  affect  our 
dreams  ? 

6.  The  emotions  are  more  or  less  active.  In  sweet,  healthful 
sleep,  our  feelings  are  pleasant,  and  a  feeling  of  satisfaction  pervades 
our  being.  All  goes  well.  But  exciting  dreams  stir  our  anger,  ex- 
cite our  mirthfulness,  or  move  us  to  tears.  In  all  forms  of  phantasy 
there  seems  to  be  a  connecting  current  of  feeling. 

7.  Memory  as  suggestion  is  active.  One  thing  suggests  another 
in  an  endless  chain,  but  recognition  is  wanting.  Thus  self,  as  mem- 
ory, from  his  experiences  recalls  the  materials  out  of  which  he  makes 
his  phantasms.  Phantasms  pass  as  a  rapidly  moving  panorama  be- 
fore the  eye  of  consciousness.  There  is  little  or  no  attention.  The 
medley  lacks  all  system.  Our  waking  experiences  fail  to  suggest 
these  fleeting  specters.  It  is  well  that  we  do  not  remember  dreams. 
We  can  hardly  conceive  a  greater  misfortune  than  to  have  the 
myriad  phantasms  of  the  night  obtruding  upon  our  waking  life. 
We  are  conscious  of  our  dreams  at  the  time,  and  we  often  in  our 
sleep  recall  and  recognize  former  dreams.  Here  we  find  one  of  the 
great  marvels  of  dream-land. 

8.  Phantasy  revels  m  dream-land.  While  the  work-a-day  brain 
reposes  and  recuperates,  self,  as  phantasy,  calls  into  action  the  por- 
tions of  the  brain  that  repose  during  directed  effort.  This  hint  of 
infinite  wisdom  can  not  be  mistaken.  The  never-wearying  soul  con- 
forms to  the  needs  of  a  material  organism. 

Phantasy  in  Somnambulism. — One  or  more  of  the 

sensor  organs  is  excited.  The  motor  organs  are  stimu- 
lated to  action  by  the  phantasm.  Sleep-walking  is  the 
ordinary  form  of  somnambulism.  Sometimes  the  think- 
ing faculties  are  intensely  active,  and  difficult  problems 
are  worked  out.  The  phantasm  seems  reality,  and  the 
dreamer  becomes  an  actor.  Seldom  do  somnambulists 
remember  their  exploits. 


I 


PHANTASY.  131 

Phantasy  in  Mesmerism,  Clairvoyance,  etc. — Mesmer- 
ism and  clairvoyance  are  forms  of  induced  revery. 
While  the  will  is  passive,  some  of  the  faculties  are 
stimulated  to  intense  activity.  Phantasms  seem  reali- 
ties, and  the  muscular  organs  respond  to  the  excitation. 
Through  suggestions,  the  operator  induces  phantasms, 
and  thus  leads  the  mesmerized  to  do  strange  things. 

Phantasy  in  Insanity,  Drnnkenness,  etc. — Insanity  is 
such  an  affection  of  the  brain  as  renders  it  an  unfit  or- 
ganism for  mental  action.  Insanity  is  a  disease  of  the 
brain.  Phantasms  possess  the  soul.  An  insane  man  is 
no  longer  a  self -directing  person.  The  creations  of 
phantasy  occasioned  by  a  diseased  brain  are  to  him  the 
only  realities.  The  phantasms  assume  every  possible 
form.  To  the  soul  embodied  in  a  whiskey-soaked  brain, 
snakes  and  demons  are  fearful  realities. 

Phantasy  in  Nerve-Diseases. — Internal  excitations  of 
the  sensor  organs  are  referred  to  external  causes.  Wak- 
ing dreams  are  believed  to  be  external  realities.  Illu- 
sions of  this  kind  are  myriad. 

1.  Vision.  Internal  excitations  of  the  optic  apparatus  occasion 
the  appearance  of  external  images.  The  victim  believes  these  men- 
tal images  to  be  real,  external  objects.  Many  honestly  believe  that 
they  have  seen  friends  long  dead.  Vision  is  admirably  explained  by 
Shakespeare  in  the  dagger-scene  in  Macbeth.  He  gives  the  exact 
physiological  explanation,  in  language  which,  for  accuracy  and  brev- 
ity, can  not  be  surpassed.     He  calls  it 

"  A  dagger  of  the  mind,  a  false  creation, 
Proceeding  from  the  heat-oppressed  brain." 
Intense  emotion,  driving  the  blood  to  the  brain,  heats  and  oppresses 
the  nerve-centers,  producing  "  a  heat^oppressed  brain."  By  a  brain 
8o  oppressed,  phantasms — daggers  of  the  mind — are  created  and 
projected  into  space.  Nerve-diseases  produce  similar  results.  Au- 
ditory illusions,  tactile  illusions,  gustatory  illusions,  and  olfactory 
illusions  may  be  accounted  for  in  the  same  way. 


132       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

2.  Hysteria  is  hydra-headed  illusion,  occasioned  by  nerve-dis- 
eases. The  victim  believes  the  illusion  reality.  Phantasy  dominates 
reason.     Disillusion  is  difRcult  and  sometimes  impossible. 

Happy  Dreams. — It  may  be  well  to  ponder  some  of 
the  conditions  favoring  pleasant  dreams : 

1.  Physical.  Suitable  food  and  warmth,  good  di- 
gestion, sufficient  exercise,  and  proper  recreation  are 
essential  to  refreshing  dreams.    Avoid  exhaustion. 

2.  Psyehical.  A  good  conscience,  with  cheerful, 
earnest  work  and  rational  recreation,  prepare  us  for 
happy  dreams.     Avoid  worry  as  you  avoid  sin. 

3.  Things  to  cherish.  During  our  waking  hours  we 
should  acquire  knowledge  and  cherish  everything  beau- 
tiful and  pure.  We  should  labor  unselfishly  for  human 
good.  We  should  cherish  every  high  and  ennobling 
ideal.  Our  phantasms  will  thus  become  refreshing, 
pure,  and  elevating. 

4.  Things  to  avoid.  As  we  avoid  deadly  poisons,  so 
should  we  avoid  low  and  impure  companionship,  litera- 
ture, or  thoughts.  If  cherished,  such  things  become 
nests  of  vipers  and  hosts  of  fiends  to  trouble  us  in  our 
dreams.  Avoid  telling  dreams.  Even  when  they  recur 
to  you,  drive  them  away  by  earnest  work.  Encourage  no 
one  to  tell  dreams  in  your  presence.  Avoid  associating 
much  with  persons  so  weak  as  to  believe  in  dreams  and 
presentiments.     So  may  your  dreams  be  pleasant. 

Comparative  Psychology. — Numerous  indications  au- 
thorize the  conclusions  that  brutes  are  endowed  with 
the  power  to  form  phantasms.  The  dog,  like  some  men, 
talks  in  his  sleep.  The  horse  evidently  sees  ghosts.  The 
brute  perceives,  remembers,  forms  phantasms.  But  these 
representations  are  sensual  and  indescribably  crude. 


IMAGINATION.  133 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

Beview. — Give  the  difference  between  presentative  and  re-pre- 
sentative  powers.  Why  are  the  perceptive  faculties  called  presenta- 
tive powers  f  Give  the  distinction  between  a  percept  and  a  re-per- 
cept. Do  we  recall  emotions  f  What  is  the  office  of  sense-percep- 
tion f    Consciousness  f    Memory  ?    Define  each.    Etc. 

Analyze  an  act  of  phantasy.  Out  of  what  are  phantasms  made  f 
Does  self  as  phantasy  create!  Mention  some  characteristics  of 
phantasy.  State  the  office  of  phantasy.  Specify.  What  is  a  phan- 
tasm! 

Give  author's  definition  of  phantasy ;  yours ;  Porter's. 

State  the  relation  of  phantasy  to  memory ;  to  the  emotions ;  to 
will ;  to  thought ;  to  imagination. 

Tell  what  you  know  about  dreams.  What  has  phantasy  to  do 
with  dreams!  Why  do  we  not  remember  dreams !  Explain  som- 
nambulism; mesmerism;  drunkenness;  insanity;  visions;  hysteria. 

Name  the  conditions  of  happy  dreams.  Should  we  often  tell 
dreams  !    Why  ! 

Diagram  and  Letter. — You  may  now  make  an  analysis  of  Chap- 
ter XI,  and  embrace  this  in  your  letter  to  your  friend.  Write  a 
careful  letter.  Most  persons  have  confused  notions  of  phantasy, 
strangely  mixing  memory  and  imagination  with  phantasy.  If  in 
your  power,  make  the  distinctions  clear  to  your  friend. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

IMAGINATION. 

By  this  is  meant  our  power  to  intentionally  represent 
our  acquisitions  in  new  forms.  Out  of  our  experiences, 
recalled  and  immediate,  we  make  new  wholes.  As  the 
potter  molds  clay,  so  we  mold  our  acquisitions  into 
new  forms.  As  perception,  self  perceives  things  having 
properties.     As  memory,  self  represents  his  past  expo- 


134       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

riences  unchanged.  Out  of  materials  furnished  by  per- 
ception and  memory,  the  mind,  as  imagination,  con- 
structs a  new  world  called  the  ideal  world. 

Acts  of  Imagination  Analyzed. — This  block  is  a  cubic 
foot.  Now  it  is  a  cubic  yard,  now  a  cubic  rod,  now  a 
cubic  mile,  now  a  cubic  world.  Now  it  is  a  rhomboid, 
now  a  cylinder,  now  an  elHpse.  Now  it  is  wood,  now 
iron,  now  gold.  Now  it  is  red,  now  yellow,  now  green. 
Self,  as  imagination,  changes  size,  changes  form,  changes 
material,  changes  color.  You  may  now  make  out  of 
materials  furnished,  a  tree.  You  have  gold,  iron,  cop- 
per, silver.  Your  tree  has  copper  roots,  iron  trunk  and 
branches,  silver  leaves,  and  gold  fruit.  You  may  make 
live  different  trees  out  of  the  same  material.  You  may 
also  make  of  the  same  materials  five  chairs.  Here  you 
observe  self,  as  imagination,  constructing  new  wholes 
out  of  materials  furnished. 

You  may  now  blot  out  St.  Louis  and  make  a  city 
to  suit  yourself.  The  Gulf  now  extends  to  St.  Louis, 
and  the  city  is  built  at  the  foot  of  a  snow-capped 
mountain.  But  you  are  the  creator  of  this  new  St. 
Louis.  You  find  that  self,  as  imagination,  erases  old 
forms  and  constructs  new  forms  out  of  materials  fur- 
nished by  memory. 

Office  of  Imagination. — Imagination  is  the  creative 
power  of  the  soul.  It  is  our  power  to  give  shape  to 
our  acquisitions.  Self,  as  imagination,  so  changes  and 
combines  his  acquisitions  as  to  form  new  wholes.  These 
new  combinations  are  called  creations  of  the  mind.  In 
this  sense,  self,  as  imagination,  creates. 

1.  Self^  as  imagination^  modifies  his  acquisitions. 
The  size,  the  form,  the  color,  and  the  materials  are  in- 


IMAGINATION.  135 

finitely  varied.  Kow  the  book  could  be  placed  in  a 
mustard-seed ;  now  it  would  fill  a  church.  You  may 
give  many  illustrations. 

2.  Belf^  as  imagination^  create^  and  destroys.  Crea- 
tion is  used  in  the  sense  of  making  new  wholes  out  of 
materials  given.  Imagination  creates  no  new  elements. 
Far  out  beyond  the  bounds  of  all  worlds  I  create  a  new 
world  and  people  it  with  new  orders  of  intelligent 
beings.  Not  satisfied,  I  destroy  my  creation  and  make 
another  vastly  more  magnificent.     Try  it. 

3.  Self^  as  imagination,  projects  the  future.  Napo- 
leon fought  his  battles  in  imagination  many  times  be- 
fore he  led  his  battahons  to  victory.  The  lover  proposes 
again  and  again  in  imagination  before  he  ventures  his 
fate.  Demosthenes  addressed  a  thousand  imaginary 
audiences  before  he  captivated  the  Athenians.  Often, 
in  imagination,  the  teacher  organizes  and  conducts  her 
school  before  she  enters  the  school-room.  The  youth 
lives  many  lives  in  imagination  before  he  achieves  suc- 
cess. The  bride-elect  goes  through  her  part  in  the 
marriage-ceremony  many  times  before  the  wedding-day. 

4.  Self,  as  imagination,  creates  ideals.  This  is  pre- 
eminently the  office  of  imagination.  The  painter  de- 
termines to  portray  a  noble  heroism.  This  is  the  idea. 
As  an  object,  he  pictures  a  brave  young  man  battling 
with  oppression  and  misfortune  in  his  heroic  efforts  to 
become  a  pre-eminent  benefactor.  The  picture  in  his 
mind  is  his  ideal.  Now  with  pencil  and  brush  he  toils. 
Kow  he  sees  on  the  canvas  his  ideal  realized,  embodied. 
Ideals  are  the  working-models  for  inventors,  artists, 
poets,  and  character-builders.  Our  highest  ideal  is  per- 
fect manhood,  realized  only  in  Christ. 


13G       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

"  Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us 
We  can  make  our  lives  sublime." 
From  all  noble  lives  we  gather  materials  for  the  crea- 
tion of  our  ideal  life.     Then,  by  every  act,  thought,  and 
emotion,  we  struggle  to  realize  and  embody  this  ideal. 
This  is  character-building. 

Characteristics  of  Imagination. — Certain  peculiarities 
mark  imagination  as  a  distinct  faculty. 

1.  Imagination  is  our  jpower  purposely  to  repre- 
sent our  acquisitions  in  new  forms.  Out  of  its  cogni- 
tions, immediate  and  remembered,  the  soul  intention- 
ally constructs  new  forms.  Inventors,  artists,  poets, 
educators,  and  scientists  are  gifted  with  vigorous  imag- 
inations. 

2.  Imagination  is  the  intentional  picturing  power. 
All  its  products  are  individual  and  have  a  material 
basis.  We  call  our  capability  to  purposely  make  images, 
imagination.  The  successful  student  uses  his  imagi- 
nation almost  as  much  as  he  uses  his  reason. 

3.  Imagination  is  the  creative  power  of  the  soul. 
In  its  highest  form,  it  virtually  creates.  Its  creations 
are  new  because  experiences  are  set  in  new  lights. 
"  Poetry  is  truer  than  history."  A  fable  may  contain 
more  truth  than  a  biography,  because  the  permanent 
meaning  of  things  is  set  in  general  forms.  Because 
they  represent  universal  human  nature,  the  creations  of 
Homer  and  Plato  and  Shakespeare  and  Emerson  will 
continue  to  live  through  the  centuries. 

Limits  of  Imagination. — Lofty  as  are  his  flights,  self^ 
as  imagination,  works  within  well-defined  limits. 

1.  As  to  physical  phenomena^  imagination  is  lim- 
ited to  sense-percepts.     I  can  place  in  my  creations  only 


IMAGINATION.  137 

what  I  have  experienced.  The  creations  of  the  blind 
are  colorless ;  of  the  deaf,  soundless ;  of  those  destitute 
of  smell,  odorless. 

2.  As  to  psychical  phenomena^  imagination  is  Urn' 
ited  to  conscious-pereepts,  I  endow  ray  rational  crea- 
tions with  my  own  conscious  powers.  I  can  do  no  more. 
My  angels  simply  know,  feel,  and  will.  God  knows 
infinitely,  feels  infinitely,  wills  infinitely,  but  it  is  im- 
possible for  me  to  endow  even  Deity  with  additional 
powers,  though  convinced  that  His  capabilities  are  infi- 
nite in  number  as  in  degree. 

3.  As  to  noumena^  imagination  is  limited  to  nmi- 
menal  percepts.  The  creations  of  Homer  and  Shake- 
speare are  limited  to  matter,  mind,  space,  time,  and 
cause ;  but^  within  the  charmed  circle,  what  wonders  are 
wrought!  Imagination,  "bounded  in  a  nut-shell,  is 
king  of  infinite  space." 

4.  Imagination  is  limited  to  the  concrete  and  tJte 
individual.  I  think  vertebrate,  but  my  ideal  is  a  beau- 
tiful gazelle.  I  think  triangle,  but  my  image  is  a  spe- 
cific equilateral  triangle.  Triangle  can  not  be  imagined, 
because  it  would  have  to  be  at  once  right-angled,  equi- 
lateral, and  isosceles.  You  can  think  the  abstract  and 
the  general,  but  you  can  imagine  only  the  concrete  and 
the  particular. 

Imagination  defined. — Self,  as  imagination,  out  of  his 
experiences  constructs  new  wholes.  Because  you  are 
endowed  with  this  power  you  can  make  an  original 
essay,  a  new  invention,  or  a  new  poem.  The  ideas  in 
Hamlet  are  old,  but  the  play  is  new.  Imagination  is 
our  capability  to  purposely  make  new  combinations. 

1.  Imagination  is  the  power  of  self  pnirposely  to 


138       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

jmt  his  experiences  into  new  forms.  Self,  as  memory^ 
recalls  the  experiences  out  of  which  he  creates  his 
ideals.  As  the  creative  activity  predominates,  this  form 
of  representation  is  called  imagination. 

2.  Original,  You  may  now  use  your  imagination 
in  constructing  an  original  definition  of  this  power. 
Try  to  make  clear  distinctions  between  memory  and 
imagination,  and  between  phantasy  apd  imagination. 

3.  Various  Definitions. — Bascom  :  Imagination  is  the  power  of 
the  mind  to  present  to  itself  vividly  new  phenomenal  forms.  Sul- 
ly :  Imagination  is  the  power  to  work  up  our  experiences  into  new 
forms.  Garvey  :  Imagination  is  the  power  to  make  new  combina- 
tions. Hopkins  :  Imagination  is  the  capability  of  the  mind  to  re- 
arrange its  acquisitions  and  create  new  wholes.  Porter  ;  Imagina- 
tion is  the  power  to  recombine  and  construct  anew  materials  fur- 
nished by  experience.  Day  :  Imagination  is  the  faculty  of  form,  and 
is  the  power  to  construct  ideals.  White  :  Imagination  is  the  power 
to  modify  and  recombine  the  products  of  memory.  Dewey  :  Imagi- 
nation is  the  capability  to  embody  an  idea  in  an  image. 

Products  of  Imagination  —  Ideals.  —  We  recognize 
Tnemories  as  representing  real  experiences,  as  when  the 
maiden  recalls  the  parting  scene  with  her  lover.  Phan- 
tasms seem  to  be  objective  realities,  as  when  heart- 
breaking sobs  awaken  the  maiden  as  she  dreams  of  her 
lover  untrue.  But  self  intentionally  creates  ideals  and 
cognizes  them  as  his  own  workmanship,  as  when  the 
maiden  plans  a  reception-party  for  her  returning  friend. 

1.  Ideals  are  creations  of  self.,  as  im^agination.  Any 
new  form  into  which  we  purposely  put  our  experiences 
is  termed  an  ideal.  The  architect  plans  a  model  school- 
building;  his  plan  is  his  ideal.  The  lady  plans  her 
flower-garden  ;  her  plan  is  her  ideal.  You  plan  an  ora- 
tion ;  your  plan  is  your  ideal.     The  artist  plans  a  pic1> 


IMAGIXATION.  139 

ure  ;  his  plan  is  his  ideal.  The  teacher  plans  a  model 
school ;  his  plan  is  his  ideal.  You  plan  a  noble  life , 
your  plan  is  your  ideal. 

2.  Ideals  are  creations  in  which  ideas  and  objects 
hlend  in  harmony.  An  ideal  embraces  three  elements : 
ideas,  objects,  and  the  blending  act.  The  sculptor's 
idea  is  injured  innocence  ;  his  object  is  a  pure  but  slan- 
dered maiden.  In  imagination,  he  so  blends  the  idea 
and  the  object  as  to  arouse  indignation  toward  her  tra- 
ducers  and  sympathy  for  herself.  He  now  embodies 
his  ideal  in  marble. 

3.  Ideals  are  intentional  creations.  Milton's  Satan 
was  not  an  accident,  nor  was  Edison's  ideal  electric 
lamp.  Inspiration  and  hard  work  are  intimately  asso- 
ciated. We  work  up  to  higher  and  still  higher  ideals. 
Purposely  we  embody  ideas  in  images,  and  call  the 
products  ideals. 

Imagination  and  other  Faculties.— Each  mental  power 
is  supplemented  by  all  the  other  faculties  of  the  soul. 
Self,  in  all  his  capabiHties,  is  present  in  each  intentional 
act.  Thus  memory  supplies  materials,  thought  suggests 
and  criticises,  emotion  stimulates,  vnW  concentrates  ef- 
fort, determines  and  executes,  but  imagination  is  the 
master  workman  in  constructing  ideals. 

1.  Memory  supplies  materials.  Self,  as  memory, 
opens  up  the  store-house  of  past  acquisitions.  Imme- 
diate percepts  also  seem  to  enter  into  our  creation.  Out 
of  these  materials,  self,  as  imagination,  constructs  ideals. 
Because  the  imagining  activity  predominates,  this  form 
of  representation  is  termed  imagination. 

2.  Thoiujht  keeps  imagination  within  hounds.  The 
idea  and  the  object  must  blend  in  harmony.     No  law 

11 


140       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND   EDUCATION. 

must  be  violated.     Means   must  be  adapted  to  ends, 
Reason  is  said  to  clip  the  wings  of  a  wild  imaginatioa, 

3.  Emotion  gives  wings  to  imagination.  The  lover 
becomes  a  poet.  The  enthusiast  becomes  an  invent- 
or, an  orator,  an  artist,  a  scientist,  a  missionary,  a  re- 
former. 

4.  Will  directs  imagination  and  works  ideals  into 
actuals.  Self,  drifting  fancy-free,  forms  crude  phan- 
tasms but  creates  no  ideals.  Eads  concentrated  his 
efforts  for  weary  months  before  he  perfected  his  ideal 
of  the  St.  Louis  bridge ;  worked  for  weary  years  before 
his  ideal  became  the  actual  bridge. 

Kinds  of  ImaginatioE. — SeK,  as  imagination,  creates 
ideals.  When  the  ideals  tend  to  move  the  emotions,  we 
call  this  power 

1.  The  emotional  imagination.  Its  ennobling  ideals 
are  of  the  beautiful  and  the  good.  Its  debasing  ideals 
are  of  appetite  and  passion. 

The  beautiful  adorns  the  universe.  God  is  beauty 
and  he  has  scattered  beauty  everywhere.  He  has  en- 
dowed us  with  the  rational  emotion  to  appreciate  and 
enjoy  the  beautiful.  He  has  also  endowed  us  with  emo- 
tional imagination — the  power  to  create  the  beautiful. 
Song  and  eloquence,  painting  and  sculpture,  poetry  and 
literature,  architecture  and  landscaping,  manners  and 
dress — these  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  man  seeks 
to  create  the  beautiful.  Pause  and  reflect !  How 
large  a  section  of  life  is  devoted  to  the  beautiful  and 
the  sublime  1 

2.  The  ethical  imagination.  The  good  gives  rise 
to  our  highest  ideals.  All  good  results  from  obedience 
to  law.    Goodness  is  intentional  conformity  to  law.   We 


IMAGINATION.  141 

are  endowed  with  conscience,  the  rational  emotion  to 
appreciate  and  enjoy  the  right.  Ethical  imagination  is 
the  power  to  create  ideals  of  the  good.  The  idea  is 
goodness,  or  conformity  to  law  ;  the  object  is  a  rational 
being ;  the  ideal  is  a  rational,  law-abiding  life.  The 
duty  world  is  the  highest.  Happiness  is  the  result  of 
law  obeyed.  One  whose  soul  is  filled  with  pure  and 
lofty  ideals  becomes  the  noble  man. 

Low  and  impure  ideals  degrade  and  ruin.  Ideals 
bom  of  appetite  and  passion  tend  to  brutalize. 

3.  TJie  philosophic  imagination.  We  idealize  the 
thought- world.  My  thoughts  take  shape.  The  topics 
so  arrange  themselves  as  to  follow  each  other  logically 
and  effectively.  An  oration  is  created.  My  knowledge 
of  the  plant- world  takes  shape.  The  myriad  forms  of 
plant-life  arrange  themselves  into  orders,  families,  classes, 
genera,  species,  individuals.  The  science  of  botany  is 
created.  Points,  lines,  surfaces,  and  solids  appear  in 
various  space  relations.  The  science  of  geometry  is 
created.  The  power,  control,  and  application  of  steam 
takes  shape.  The  engine  is  invented.  But  it  is  need- 
less to  specify.  The  philosophical  imagination  is  essen- 
tial to  invention,  discovery,  and  system.  Imagination 
is  no  less  necessary  to  the  scientist,  the  philosopher, 
the  statesman,  and  the  practical  man,  than  to  the  poet 
or  the  architect.  The  student  who  is  deficient  in  imagi- 
nation fails  to  master  science. 

Imagination  and  Fliantasy. — Both  are  dependent  on  perception 
and  memory  for  materials,  and  both  construct  new  forms.  In  other 
particulars  they  diflfer  so  widely  that  careful  thinkers  are  constrained 
to  regard  them  as  distinct  faculties.  It  is  well  to  reiterate  here 
''  that  a  faculty  is  a  power  of  the  soul  to  do  acts  distinguishable  in 
kind  from  other  acts.** 


142       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

1.  Imagination  is  intelligent  activity ;  phantasy  works  in  the 
dark.  Thought  guides  imagination,  but  is  measurably  inactive 
during  the  play  of  phantasy. 

3.  Imagination  is  determined  activity ;  phantasy  is  drifting. 
As  imagination,  the  soul  plans,  makes  working  models,  organizes. 
As  phantasy,  the  soul  floats  down  the  stream  and  weaves  a  gos- 
samer web. 

3.  Imagination  creates  ideals;  phantasy  forms  phantasms. 
The  one  gives  us  the  "Star-spangled  Banner,"  the  other  a  med- 
ley ;  the  one  gives  us  the  Parthenon,  the  other  a  grotesque 
ruin.  Imagination  is  the  mental  artist ;  phantasy  is  the  mental 
kaleidoscope. 

4.  In  imagination,  we  know  that  our  ideals  are  our  own  crea- 
tions; in  phantasy,  our  phantasms  appear  to  us  to  be  objective  reali- 
ties. In  imagination,  the  soul  knows  itself  constructing  new  forms ; 
in  phantasy,  the  soul  seems  to  itself  a  spectator. 

5.  Ideals  are  remembered;  phantasms  appear  for  a  moment, 
then  disappear  forever.  We  treasure  our  ideals  as  we  do  our  ideas, 
but  our  dreams  and  reveries  fade  into  utter  forgetfulness. 

Growth  of  Imagination. — The  feeble  beginnings  of 
imaginative  activity  may  be  noticed  at  an  early  period. 
Phantasy  reigns  in  these  early  years.  The  effort  of 
the  three-year-old  to  make  new  stories  indicates  slight 
imagination  but  much  phantasy.  Fairy-tales  delight 
young  children  because  they  are  to  them  realities.  As 
our  experiences  multiply,  and  thought  and  will  begin 
to  grow  active,  nursery-stories  cease  to  satisfy.  Now 
boys  and  girls  begin  to  enjoy  the  products  of  imagina- 
tion, and  show  a  disposition  to  do  things  for  themselves. 
Imagination  becomes  decidedly  active  during  youth, 
but  rarely  reaches  its  highest  activity  before  the  twen- 
tieth year. 

Education  of  Imagination.* — Culture  of  imagination 
immeasurably  increases  human  achievement  and  human 

*  See  "Applied  Psychology"  for  full  discussion. 


IMAGINATION.  143 

happiness.  "  Imagination  is  capable  of  steady  growth, 
and  requires  constant  cultivation.  The  creative  imagi- 
nation, when  most  gifted,  can  at  first  rise  only  to  a  cer- 
tain height  above  tlie  materials  which  its  experience 
gives.  Its  succeeding  essays  are  founded  upon  those 
which  have  been  made  before,  and  it  proceeds  by  suc- 
cessive steps,  more  or  less  long  and  high,  till  it  attains 
the  most  consummate  achievements  that  are  ever  reached 
by  man.  That  there  is  a  striking  diversity  of  original 
endowment  can  not  be  doubted,  but  that  this  is  the 
common  law  of  the  development  of  this  power  can  not 
be  denied."  *  Education  makes  the  difference  between 
a  feeble  and  a  vigorous  imagination. 

"  Human  nature,  with  its  joys  and  sorrows,  its  achievements  and 
disappointments,  is  better  fitted  to  stir  up  our  higher  faculties  than 
the  grandest  objects  fashioned  out  of  matter.  History  and  biography 
reveal  incidents  which  incite  the  imagination,  and  youth  should  be 
made  acquainted  with  them.  They  bring  under  our  notice  charac- 
ters which  transcend  in  grandeur  the  greatest  of  the  works  of  na- 
ture— its  mountains  and  its  vales,  its  streams,  its  cataracts,  and  its 
precipices.  Those  who  would  train  the  mind  to  its  highest  capacity 
must  furnish  to  the  young  the  record  of  deeds  of  heroism,  of  be- 
nevolence, of  self-sacrifice,  of  courage  to  resist  the  evil  and  main- 
tain the  good.  Friendship,  fidelity,  patriotism,  and  piety  must  be 
presented  in  their  most  attractive  forms."  f 

Comparative  Fsychology. — The  bmte  creates  no  ideals  and  is 
incapable  of  appreciating  creations  of  imagination.  It  gains  no 
ideas,  much  less  does  it  embody  ideas  in  images.  Brute  representa- 
tion includes  memory  and  phantasy,  but  not  imagination.  Even 
the  phantasms  of  brutes  are  the  lowest  form  of  sensuous  combi- 
nations. So  far  as  I  can  see,  the  brute  is  not  endowed  with  even 
rudimentary  imagination. 

•  Porter.  ♦  McCoeh. 


144       ELEMENT  A.RY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS, 

Eeview. — Give  the  office  of  memory ;  of  phantasy.  What  has 
attention  to  do  with  memory?  Give  the  five  laws  of  sugges- 
tion.   Etc. 

Does  the  soul,  as  imagination,  create  new  ideas?  What  does 
it  create?  Do  you  like  the  word  construct  better  than  the  word 
create?    Why? 

Analyze  an  act  of  imagination.  What  do  you  discover  ?  Where 
does  self  get  his  materials  ?    What  does  he  do  with  them  ? 

Show  the  limits  of  imagination  as  to  matter ;  as  to  mind.  Give 
the  office  of  imagination.  Specify.  Give  the  characteristics  of 
imagination. 

Repeat  the  author's  definition  of  imagination  ;  your  definition ; 
Garvey's  definition ;  Dewey's  definition. 

Show,  by  examples,  the  work  of  memory;  of  phantasy;  of 
imagination.  What  are  creations  of  imagination  called?  Why? 
What  is  an  ideal  ?    Illustrate.     Give  the  three  elements  of  an  ideal. 

What  is  the  relation  of  imagination  to  memory  ?  to  thought  ? 
to  emotion  ?  to  will  ?    Illustrate. 

What  do  you  mean  by  the  emotional  imagination  ?  assthetical 
imagination  ?  philosophical  imagination  ?  ethical  imagination  ? 

In  what  respect  do  imagination  and  phantasy  resemble  each 
other  ?    How  do  they  differ  ?    Prove  that  they  are  separate  faculties. 

Tell  what  you  know  about  the  growth  of  imagination.  When 
does  this  power  become  fully  active  ?    Give  examples. 

What  is  the  law  of  the  development  of  imagination?  Why 
is  the  education  of  imagination  so  important  ?  Show  that  the  study 
of  human  nature  stimulates  imagination  even  more  than  the  study 
of  nature  and  art. 

Are  brutes  endowed  with  imagination  ?  How  do  you  account 
tor  new  combinations  made  by  brutes  ? 

Letter. — You  will  now  write  an  interesting  letter  to  your  friend. 
Use  your  imagination.  Let  all  your  illustrations  be  original.  Ad- 
vise the  earnest  culture  of  imagination  by  the  study  of  nature,  art, 
and  literature.    Urge  the  vigorous  use  of  this  power. 


IMAGINATION. 


145 


Topical  Analysis  of  Chapter  XII. — Imagination. 


I.  Acts  of  Imagination  Analyzed. 

Ideal  tree.        Ideal  cottage.       Ideal  school-room. 

II.  Office  of  Imagination. 

Modifies  acquisitions.  Projects  the  future. 

Creates  new  wholes.  Creates  ideals. 


IlL  Characteristics  of  Imagination. 


Constructive  power. 
Picturing  power. 

IV.  Limits  of  Imagination. 

As  to  matter. 
As  to  mind. 

V.  Definitions. 

Author's. 
Original. 
Various  definitions. 

Bascom's.        Garvey's. 

Sully's.  Hopkins's. 

VI.  Ideals. 

Creations  of  imagination. 
Elements. 

Ideas.  Objects. 

Intentional  creations. 


Ideal-making  power. 


As  to  necessary  realities. 
As  to  concrete  things. 


Porter's. 
White's. 


Harmonious  blending. 


Vll.  Imagination  and 

Memory.  Thought.  Emotion.         Will, 

VIII.   Kinds  of  Imagination. 

Emotional.  Ethical.  Philosophic. 

IX.  Imagination  and  Phantasy. 

Agreements.  Differences. 

X.  Growth  and  Education  of  Imagination* 

Growth.  Culture.  Means, 

XI.  Comparative  Psychology. 


146       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


CHAPTEE  XIIL 

EEPKESENTATION — GENERAL   VIEW. 

Eepresentative  knowing  is  making  present  again 
past  experiences.  Presentation  is  the  capability  of  the 
mind  to  make  things  present  to  itself  for  the  first  time. 
Bepresentation  includes  the  capabilities  of  self  to  repre- 
sent his  past  experiences  in  old  and  new  forms.  Self 
represents  his  experiences  unchanged  or  in  modified 
forms.  Representation  is  a  general  name  including  a 
group  of  related  but  distinct  activities.  This  group  of 
soul-energies  is  known  by  the  following 

{The  Representative  Powers. 
The  Reproductive  and  Constructive  Imagination. 
The  Conceptive  Powers. 
Representation. — Memory.    Phantasy.    Imagination. 

Because  images  are  most  prominent  in  representa- 
tion, some  writers  consider  these  powers  as  merely  forms 
of  imagination.  This  view  tends  to  confusion,  as  nearly 
all  writers  treat  memory  and  imagination  as  distinct 
powers.  " Eepresentative  powers"  best  expresses  the 
meaning,  and  is  now  one  of  the  best-established  ex- 
pressions in  mental  science. 

1.  The  representative  powers  are  our  capabilities 
to  make  present  again^  in  old  or  new  forms^  our  past 
experiences.  Representation  is  memory  when  we  rec- 
ognize the  representations  as  past  experiences.  Rep- 
resentation is  phantasy  when  the  new  forms  of  our 
past   experiences    are   phantasms.     Representation    is 


REPRESENTATION— GENERAL  VIEW.  X47 

imagination  when  the  new  forms  of  our  past  experi- 
ences are  ideals. 

r  Memory. 
The  Representative  Powers. —  -]  Phantasy. 

I  Imagination. 

2.  Memory  is  the  power  of  self  to  represent  in  old 
forins^  called  memories,  his  past  experiences.  Memory 
is  the  capability  to  recall  past  experiences  unchanged. 
As  images  are  the  most  prominent  features  of  our  recol- 
lections, memory  is  sometimes  called  reproductive  imagi- 
nation. Memory  is  every  way  preferable.  It  neither 
misleads  nor  confuses.  It  is  specific,  and  is  in  universal 
use.  Treating  memory  as  a  group  of  faculties  can  serve 
no  good  purpose.  Self,  as  memory,  does  all  recalling. 
Take  away  memory,  and  our  past  would  be  a  blank. 
The  soul,  as  memory,  reproduces  its  past  experiences. 
Retention,  recollection,  association,  and  recognition  are 
merely  elements  of  complete  acts  of  memory. 

f  Memory. 

J  Reproductive  Imagination. 
*"***•      ^  '  Retention.  Association. 


(       ^  '     \  Recollection.  Recognition. 

3.  Phamia^  is  the  power  of  self  to  represent  spon- 
taneously his  past  experiences  i/n  new  forms  called 
phantasms.  Self,  as  memory,  recalls  his  experiences ; 
self,  as  phantasy,  spontaneously  weaves  these  experiences 
into  new  forms  called  phantasms.  Phantasy  is  the  capa- 
bility to  manufacture  these  new  forms.  In  this  form  of 
representation  the  soul,  at  the  time,  is  not  conscious  of 
making  these  pictures  out  of  its  revived  experiences; 
it  is  only  conscious  of  the  phantasms.  Phantasy  is 
undirected  or  drifting  activity;  hence  it  is  called  the 


148       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND   EDUCATION. 

drifting  imagination.  Fantasy,  fancy,  and  phantasy 
are  merely  different  fonns  of  the  same  word.  Fancy 
is  used  in  many  senses,  and  is  extremely  indefinite. 
Drifting  imagination  is  specific,  but  tends  to  confuse. 
As  phantasy  is  never  used  but  to  designate  this  facul- 
ty, it  is  given  the  preference.  Because  images  are  so 
conspicuous  in  recollections,  some  use  phantasy  and 
recollection  as  synonyms.  But  the  soul,  as  phantasy, 
does  no  recollecting ;  it  merely  weaves  its  recollec- 
tions, without  intention  or  effort,  into  new  forms.  Rep- 
resentation, as  phantasy,  conjoins  revived  experiences, 
forming  phantasms. 

r  Phantasy. 
Names. —  <  Fantasy,  or  Fancy. 

(.  Drifting  Imagination. 

4.  Imagination  is  the  power  of  self  to  represent  in- 
tentionally his  past  experiences  in  new  forms^  called 
ideals.  Self,  as  memory,  reproduces  his  experiences; 
self,  as  imagination,  manufactures  out  of  these  experi- 
ences ideals.  Memory,  in  this  form  of  representation,  is 
subordinate,  merely  furnishing  materials;  imagination 
is  the  master  builder.  Imagination  is  the  capability  to 
evolve  the  ideal  from  the  actual.  All  agree  in  calling 
the  power  of  the  soul  purposely  to  create,  or  construct, 
or  form  ideals,  imagination.  To  distinguish  imagina- 
tion proper  from  reproductive  imagination  or  memory, 
and  from  drifting  imagination  or  phantasy,  it  is  some- 
times called  the  creative  or  constructive  imagination. 
Imagination,  unmodified,  best  designates  this  power. 

(  Imagination. 
Names.—  <  Constructive  Imagination. 
(.  Creative  Imagination. 


KEPRESENTATION— GENERAL  VIEW.  149 

5.  Representative  knowledge  is  re  -  knowledge. 
Knowledge  gained  directly  is  intuitive  knowledge,  or 
original  knowledge,  or  presentative  knowledge,  or  per- 
ceptive knowledge ;  but  when  we  re-know,  our  cogni- 
tions are  called  re-knowledge,  or  representative  knowl- 
edge, or  revived  knowledge. 

r  Memories. 
Forms  of  Eepresontative  Knowledge. —  •<   Phantasms. 

(  Ideals. 

6.  Memories  are  reproduced  experiences.  The  origi- 
nal experiences  or  old  forms  are  recalled  just  as  they 
were  experienced.  Products  of  memory  are  repro- 
duced acquisitions.  When  we  recall  our  experiences 
unchanged,  we  call  them  memories,  recollections,  or 
remembrances.  Kemembered  percepts  are  simply  re- 
percepts.  Kemembered  concepts  are  merely  re-con- 
cepts.   Remembered  judgments  are  re- judgments. 

Misleading. — To  call  memory-products  concepts  or  conceptions 
is  misleading.  This  relic  of  the  old  psychology  tends  to  confuse 
the  learner.  A  concept  is  a  general  notion,  and  conception  is  the 
power  to  discern  general  notions.  These  terms  are  thus  used  in 
logic  and  literature  as  well  as  in  modern  psychology. 

f  Memories.  Re-percepts. 

Recollections.         Re-concepts. 
Remembrances. 

Conceptions  (obsolete  and  mislead- 
ing). 


Memory-Products  are  oalled- 


7.  Phanta^ns  are  crude  mental  pictures  which 
seem  to  he  realities,  Webster  says:  "A  phantasm  is 
an  image  formed  by  the  mind  and  supposed  to  be 
real."  The  soul,  out  of  its  revived  experiences,  spon- 
taneously forms  a  panorama  for  its  own  amusement. 
These  moving  scenes  appear  to  be  objective  realities. 


150       ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

and  self  seems  to  be  a  spectator.     The  products  of 
phantasy  take  various 

Phantasms. 

Phantasies  ancj  Fancies. 
ames.     •{   j)j,ga^jjjg  g^jj^  Reveries. 

Air-castles,  etc. 

8.  Ideals  are  ideas  and  objects  hlended.  Out  of  its 
revived  experiences  the  soul,  as  imagination,  constructs 
new  forms,  called  ideals.  Ideals  are  created  out  of 
reals,  and  may  become  realities.  Out  of  his  experiences 
the  inventor  creates  an  ideal  steam-engine.  "When  he 
builds  the  engine,  the  ideal  becomes  a  reality.  The 
products  of  imagination  take  various 


Kames. 


Ideals. 

Imaginations. 

Creations  of  Imagination. 

\  Etc. 

SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

Place  on  your  left  the  diagrams  of  the  three  perceptive  powers, 
and  on  your  right  the  diagrams  of  the  three  representative  powers. 
With  these  before  you  study  Chapter  XII.  Compare  the  faculties 
named,  topic  by  topic. 

Keep  constantly  in  mind  the  important  fact  that  in  its  action, 
as  in  its  nature,  the  mind  is  a  unit,  and  that  a  faculty  is  merely  a 
distinct  capability  of  the  soul. 

State  the  oiSce  of  each  of  the  presentative  and  representative 
powers.  Give  the  characteristics  of  each.  Define  each.  Name  the 
products  of  each  of  these  powers. 

Could  there  be  representation  without  perception  f  Could  there 
be  phantasy  without  memory  ?    Does  imagination  imply  memory  ? 

Beferences. — For  a  more  elaborate  treatment  of  representation, 
the  student  is  referred  to  •'  Human  Intellect,"  Porter ;  "  Simple  Cog- 
nitive Powers,"  McCosh ;  "  Outlines  of  Psychology,"  Sully. 


PART    lY. 
THE  THOUGHT  FACULTIES. 


CHAPTER  XIV.— Conception. 
XV, — Judgment. 
XVI.— Reason. 
XVII,— Thought-Knowing— Genkeai.  View, 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PYRAMID, 


1   =!       THE  WILL     , 

^        POWERS 

■ 

1 

1 

1        THE 

1 

1         j  EMOTIONS. 

1 

Lu 

X 
h- 
u. 
O 
<n 
Lu 

Is 

2  1         THE 
^  1   PHYSICAL 
;;      FEELINGS. 

1         THE 
IMSTINCTS. 

^A 

1 

1 

1         THE 

REASON. 

REASONS.  1 

1   THINKING   1 

JUDGMENT. 

IJUDGMENTS.1 

1    POWERS. 

CONCEPTION. 

1  CONCEPTS. 

1 

/  ^ 

1         THE 

/REPRESENT. 
1        ATIVE 

POWERS. 

IMAGINATION. 
PHANTASY. 
MEMORY. 

IDEALS.      1  g 

Iphantasms.  c 

I  MEMORIES.     ;^ 

1  ^ 

1 

THE 

NOUMENAL-PERCEPTION. 

NOUMENAL-I 
PERCEPTS.! 

conscious] 
percepts. 

1       perceptive! 

CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION. 

1 

POWERS. 

SENSE-PERCEPTION. 

1       SENSE- 
1  PERCEPTS. 

FOURTH   PART. 


THOUGHT-KNOWING,   OR  THE   COMPARATIVE 
POWERS. 

These  are  our  capabilities  to  discern  relations.  Self, 
as  perception,  gains  the  elements  of  knowledge ;  and 
self,  as  thought,  elaborates  these  elements  into  higher 
forms.  That  we  may  discover  relations,  we  compare  / 
and  that  we  may  digest  elementary  notions,  we  reflect. 
This  group  of  faculties  is  known  by  the  following 


Hamet. —  ■< 


The  Thought-Powers. 

The  Comparative  Powers. 

The  Elaborative  Faculties. 

The  Logical  Powers. 

The  Reflective  Faculties. 

The  Understanding  (indefinite). 


Each  name  is  expressive  and  specific.  Omitting  the 
last,  these  names  may  be  used  interchangeably. 

The  universe  is  a  unit.  Each  individual,  each  group 
of  individuals,  and  each  system  of  groups,  is  a  related 
part  of  one  stupendous  whole.  Thinking  is  discerning 
relations. 

Firsts  we  discover  relations  of  similarity,  and  think 
individuals  into  classes.  Our  capability  to  discern  class- 
relations  and  thus  gain  general  notions  is  termed  our 
classifying  power,  or  conception. 


154       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Second^  we  discover  truth-relations,  and  think  no- 
tions into  sentences.  Our  capability  to  discern  and 
predicate  truth-relations  is  termed  judgment. 

Third.,  we  discover  that  each  thing  is  in  some  causal 
way  related  to  every  other  thing.  Causes  and  effects, 
means  and  ends,  conditions  and  dependencies,  ante- 
cedents and  consequents,  ratios  and  proportions,  ele- 
ments and  compounds,  in  myriad  forms  unite  all  things 
into  infinite  series  of  cause-relations.  We  discern  cause- 
relations  and  think  conclusions.  Our  power  to  discern 
cause-relations  and  think  judgments  into  arguments  is 

called  reason, 

t  Conception. 
The  Thinking  Faculties. —  -j  Judgment. 

(.  Reason. 

You  observe  this  figure,  and  this,  and  this.  You 
discern  that  they  are  alike  in  being  rectangular  and 
having  four  equal  sides.  You  discern  the  group-notion, 
square  figures.  Your  power  to  do  this  is  called  concep- 
tion. You  know  the  meaning  of  the  notions  vertebrate 
and  horse.  You  discern  the  agreement  of  these  notions, 
and  say  the  horse  is  a  vertebrate.  Your  power  to  dis- 
cern the  agreement  of  notions  is  called  judgment.  As 
all  animals  are  endowed  with  instinct,  and  as  the  dog  is 
an  animal,  you  discern  the  conclusion  that  dogs  are  en- 
dowed with  instinct.  Your  power  to  infer  conclusions 
is  termed  reason. 

Self,  as  conception,  elaborates  percepts  into  con- 
cepts ;  self,  as  judgment,  elaborates  concepts  into  judg- 
ments; and  self,  as  reason,  elaborates  judgments  into 
reasons. 


CONCEPTION.  155 

CHAPTER  XIY. 

CONCEPTION. 

By  this  18  ineant  the  power  to  think  individuals 
into  classes.  Our  percepts  are  notions  of  individual 
things.  Between  individuals  we  discern  relations.  I 
perceive  this  block,  and  this,  and  this,  and  this.  They 
differ  as  to  size  and  proportion,  but  I  see  that  they  are 
related  as  to  the  number  of  sides.  I  think  these  three- 
sided  figures  into  one  class.  As  the  notion  three-sided- 
ness  is  common  to  all  three-sided  figures,  it  is  called  a 
general  notion  or  a  concept. 

We  discern  general  notions  through  individual  no- 
tions, as 

N-o-u-n  is  a  general  notion. 


oe 
.2 

.s 

08 

.2 

John  and  Ohio  and  (a)  boy  and  (a)  book  are  individual  no- 
tions. Percepts  are  our  scaffolding  to  enable  us  to  think 
up  to  concepts.  We  discern  the  name-relation  between 
John,  Ohio,  etc.,  and  think  all  name-words  into  one 
class.  Noun  is  a  concept.  Verb  is  a  concept.  All 
class-notions  are  concepts. 

Acts  of  Conception  Analyzed. — You  observe  these 
blocks  of  various  forms  and  sizes.  You  decide  to  con- 
sider them  with  reference  to  the  number  of  sides.  You 
abstract  the  property,  number  of  sides.  You  leave  out 
of  view  everything  else.  You  now  compare  the  several 
12 


156       ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY  AND   EDUCATION. 

figures.  You  discern  common  properties.  This,  and 
this,  and  this,  have  three  sides ;  this,  and  this,  and  this, 
four  sides.  You  generaUze — discern  a  general  proper- 
ty. You  now  classify  the  figures  with  reference  to  the 
common  property.  You  collect  them  into  groups.  This 
group  of  three-sided  figures  you  call  triangles.  You 
discern  the  group-notion  or  the  concept,  triangle.  This 
group  of  four- sided  figures  you  call  quadrilaterals.  You 
discern  the  group-notion  or  the  concept,  quadrilateral. 
So  with  the  concepts  pentagon,  hexagon,  etc.  Draw 
the  scaffolding,  and  analyze  the  act  of  forming  the 
concept  pencil  /  also,  the  concept  t/ree  /  also,  the  con- 
cept lake  ;  also,  the  concept  quadruped. 

Elements  of  Conception.— From  the  analysis  you  dis- 
cover the  steps  or  processes  by  which  the  mind  reaches 
concepts.  Analytic  observation,  abstraction,  generali- 
zation, and  classification  are  processes  of  thinking  things 
into  classes.  Self,  as  conception,  advances  by  these 
steps  in  gaining  group  notions. 

1.  Analytic  observation.  You  perce've  things  having  properties. 
Here  you  have  a  collection  of  leaves.  This  leaf  is  oval,  its  veins  are 
parallel,  its  edges  are  dentate.  You  observe  this  leaf,  and  this,  and 
this,  and  note  peculiarities.  Observing  things  as  having  properties 
and  parts  is  called  analytic  observation.  The  first  step  in  elabora- 
tion is  necessarily  analytic.  We  must  discriminate  before  we  can 
assimilate. 

2.  Ahstradion,  You  decide  to  consider  leaves  with  reference  to 
shape.  You  abstract  shape  and  disregard  the  veins,  edges,  etc.  Draw- 
ing out  one  quality  and  considering  things  with  reference  to  this, 
regardless  of  other  qualities,  is  called  abstraction.  Above,  we  con- 
sidered figures  with  reference  to  number  of  sides.  You  may  give 
other  examples  of  abstraction.  You  discover  how  you  get  your  no- 
tions of  attributes.  These  notions  you  call  abstract  ideas,  as  red- 
ness, hardness,  dullness,  roundness,  goodness,  etc. 

3.  Comparison.   Putting  leaves  side  by  side,  you  compare  them. 


CONCEPTION.  157 

and  thus  discern  relations  of  likeness.  As  you  have  abstracted 
shape,  you  compare  the  leaves  as  to  shape,  and  find  points  of  agree- 
ment as  well  as  of  disagreement.  Discerning  resemblances  is  called 
comparison. 

4.  Oeneralizatio7i.  You  discover  a  common  something;  you 
generalize ;  you  find  a  general  property.  This  leaf,  and  this,  and 
this,  are  ovate.  Ovateness  is  general  to  these  leaves.  This  leaf,  and 
this,  and  this,  are  lanceolate.  Lanceolateness  is  general  to  these 
leaves.  Finding  a  property  common  to  several  objects  is  called  gen-' 
eralization.  Above  we  generalized  and  found  the  common  proper- 
ties of  the  figures  to  be  three-sidedness,  four-sidedness,  etc. 

5.  Classification.  You  now  arrange  the  leaves  in  groups  wi  h 
reference  to  the  general  property,  shape,  and  name  the  groups 
This  group  you  call  ovate ;  this,  lanceolate ;  this,  cordate.  You 
gain  the  class  notions — ovate,  lanceolate,  cordate — and  designate 
them  by  these  names.  The  act  of  conception  is  complete.  Group- 
ing objects  into  classes  with  reference  to  general  properties  is  called 
classification.  The  second  step  in  elaboration  is  synthetic ;  we  first 
discriminate,  and  then  assimilate.  You  may  classify  books  with 
reference  to  color  of  binding,  and  point  out  and  define  the  five 
elements  of  conception.  You  may  classify  these  roses  with  refer- 
ence to  color,  and  point  out  the  steps. 

Office  of  Conception. — Self,  as  conception,  discerns 
relations  of  similarity  between  tilings,  and  thus  thinks 
many  individuals  as  one  class.  You  perceive  this  tree, 
and  this,  and  this.  You  compare  them,  and  find  that 
they  have  the  common  property — apf)le-bcaring.  You 
think  them  into  one  class — apple-tree.  The  mind,  as 
thought,  can  not  well  deal  with  the  trees  of  the  for- 
est or  the  inhabitants  of  the  sea  as  individuals;  but, 
endowed  with  conception,  we  are  able  to  think  myriads 
of  individuals  into  a  few  classes.  As  sensations  are  the 
materials  out  of  which  sense-percepts  are  made,  so  per- 
cepts are  the  elements  out  of  which  concepts  are  made. 
Discerning  concepts,  through  percepts,  in  the  office  of 
conception. 


158       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Characteristics  of  Conception. — We  perceive  particu- 
lar notions,  but  think  general  notions : 

1.  As  conception,  seK  discerns  many  as  one.  The 
millions  of  acorn-bearing  trees  are  oaks.  The  billions 
of  back-boned  animals  are  vertebrates. 

2.  As  conception,  self  elaborates  percepts  into  con- 
cepts. From  the  pel-cepts,  this  bird,  and  this,  and  this, 
I  elaborate  the  concept  bird.  I  discriminate  various 
kinds  of  fruit,  and  assimilate  such  as  have  common 
properties  into  classes,  and  call  these  group-notions 
peach,  apple,  pear. 

3.  As  conception,  self  gives  names  to  general  no- 
tions. Thus,  the  general  notion,  four-footedness  is  em- 
bodied in  the  word  quadruped.  Things  are  realities, 
and  the  relations  between  things  are  realities.  Things 
and  relations  exist  independent  of  the  mind.  We  dis- 
cern the  relations  of  resemblance,  and  think  things  into 
groups.  We  call  these  group-notions  concepts.  We 
give  to  our  general  notions  names ;  as  noun,  verb,  ad- 
jective. 

4.  As  conception,  self  discerns,  but  does  not  picture, 
group-notions.  We  think  three-sidedness,  but  we  can 
not  picture  a  triangle  at  once  isosceles,  equilateral,  and 
right-angled.  We  can  picture  only  the  concrete  indi- 
vidual thing.  We  can  picture  this  cow,  but  we  can  not 
picture  mammal. 

Conception  defined. — Conception  is  the  power  to  dis- 
cern group-notions. 

1.  Conception  is  the  soul-energy  to  think  moLny  into 
one.  We  think  many  individuals  into  one  class.  We 
discern  class-relations,  and  elaborate  percepts  into  con- 
cepts. 


CONCEPTION.  159 

2.  Original.  Express  clearly  in  your  own  words 
your  view  of  conception.     Illustrate. 

3.  Various  Definitions. — 1.  Schuyler:  Conception  is  the  capa- 
bility to  form  general  notions.  2.  Porter  ;  Conception  is  the  power 
to  form  concepts.  3.  Sully  :  Conception  is  the  power  to  form  gen- 
eral notions.  4.  McCosh:  The  power  to  discover  relations  of  re- 
semblance. 5.  Day:  Conception  is  the  power  of  the  intelligence 
itself  to  conceive  general  notions. 


Products  of  Conception.- 


Concepts. 

General  Notions  or  General  Ideas. 

Group-Notions  or  Group-Ideas. 

Class-Notions. 


Concept,  that  which  is  grasped  or  held  together,  ad- 
mirably expresses  the  meaning.  We  discern  the  rela- 
tions of  resemblance  between  these  animals,  grasping 
them  together  as  one  class ;  we  call  this  class  of  ani- 
mals dogs.  As  the  notion  is  common  to  all  these  ani- 
mals, it  is  a  general  notion  ;  and  as  it  grasps  together 
all  these  animals,  it  is  a  class-notion  or  group-notion. 
All  class-notions  are  concepts.  A  concept  is  a  notion 
of  objects  grasped  together  through  common  properties. 

Concepts  of  Objects  and  of  Attributes. — You  observe  this  red 
rose,  this  red  bird,  and  this  red  sky.  You  gain  two  concepts :  red 
objects  and  redness.  You  test  this  hard  wood,  this  hard  iron,  and 
this  hard  glass ;  you  gain  the  concepts,  hard  objects  and  hardness. 
Redness,  hardness,  brightness,  etc.,  are  general  notions  of  properties 
of  objects.  As  the  properties  are  abstracted  from  the  objects,  these 
terms  are  called  abstract  concepts,  abstract  ideas,  abstract  nouns. 
But  the  distinction  \s  not  deemed  material.  A  concept  is  ever  a 
general  notion. 

Properties  of  Concepts. — Self,  as  conception,  discerns  group-no- 
tions, and  gives  names  to  these  notions.  I  discern  the  group-notion 
three-sided ness,  and  call  thi^  notion  triangle.  General  notions  take 
general  names : 

1.  Denomination  is  the  giving  to  a  class-notion  a  class-name.    I 


160       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


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Animate; 


think  many  resembling  things  into  one  class.  I  gain  a  class-notion. 
I  now  give  the  notion  a  name,  which  is  used  as  a  sign  to  represent  the 
class-notion.  I  think  wheat,  corn,  oats,  barley  into  oneness.  I  call 
the  concept  grain.  The  notion  of  an  individual  object  is  a  percept, 
but  a  general  notion  always  extends  to  several  individuals.    The 

concept  may  be  embodied 
SUBSTANCE,  jj^  ^  gcncral  term.    Mineral 

is  a  general  name  represent- 
ing a  general  notion. 

2.  Extension  has  refer- 
ence to  the  number  of  in- 
dividuals embraced  in  the 
concept.  The  concept  man 
extends  to  more  individuals 
than  the  concept  Caucasian. 
Animal  has  much  greater 
extension  than  mammal. 
A  general  notion  always 
extends  to  several  individ- 
uals, and,  the  more  indi- 
viduals embraced,  the  great- 
er the  extension.  Fruit 
has  greater  extension  than 
lemon. 

3.  Iniensio7i,  or  inclu- 
sion, has  reference  to  the 
number  of  common  attri- 
butes included  in  the  con- 
cept. A  concept  includes 
a  greater  or  less  number  of 
common   properties.      The 


RATIONAL, 


IRRATIONAL, 


MAN, 


AND  OTHERS. 


CONCEPTION.  161 

attributes  of  the  individual  are  very  numerous.  The  lower  the  class, 
the  greater  the  number  of  common  attributes.  Birds  have  few  com- 
mon attributes;  vertebrates  fewer;  animals  fewer.  As  the  exten- 
sion becomes  greater,  the  intension  becomes  less.  As  intension  in- 
creases, extension  decreases.  Illustrate  this  by  the  preceding  and 
the  following  figures. 

Remark.  The  concept  man  includes  more  common  character- 
istics than  the  concept  animal ;  but  the  concept  animal  extends  to 
many  more  individuals.  Man  has  the  greater  intension;  animal 
the  greater  extension. 

il.  Individuals. 
2.  Species. 
3.  Genera. 
4.  Families,  Orders,  etc. 

Individual,  Species,  and  Genus. — General  notions  may 
include  larger  and  larger  generalizations.  In  the  classified 
sciences,  botany,  zoology,  geology,  and  chemistry,  special 
nomenclatures  are  used.  But  individual,  species,  and 
■yenics  are  terms  common  to  all  sciences  and  all  litera- 
ture. With  the  thought-pyramid  before  you,  study  and 
illustrate  these  terms. 

1.  An  individual  is  one  of  a  species.  !N'otions  of 
individual  things  are  always  percepts.  Through  per- 
cepts we  discern  concepts.  All  class-notions  are  con- 
cepts. The  individual  is  simply  one  of  a  class  of  things. 
Name  the  individuals  in  the  figures. 

2.  A  species  is  a  group  of  individuals  having  one 
or  more  common  chara/iteristics.  The  right-angled  tri- 
angle is  a  species  of  triangle.  The  greyhound  is  a  spe- 
cies of  dog.     The  pippin  is  a  species  of  apple. 

Species,  in  zoOlogy  and  botany,  is  a  class  sprung  from  a  com- 
mon stock.  A  species  of  animals  is  a  group  that  has  or  may  hava 
descended  from  a  single  pair.  In  this  work,  as  in  logic  and  litera- 
ture, a  species  means  one  of  the  classes  into  which  a  higher  class  or 


162       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

genus  may  be  divided;  as,  vertebrates,  articulates,  raollusks,  and 
radiates  are  species  of  the  genus  animal. 

3.  A  genus  is  a  group  of  species  having  one  or 
more  common  characteristics.  Man  is  the  genus  of 
which  Caucasian,  Mongolian,  Ethiopian,  American,  and 
Malayan  are  species.  Metal  is  a  genus  of  which  gold, 
silver,  copper,  iron,  etc.,  are  species.  Triangle  is  a 
genus  of  which  equilateral  triangle  is  a  species. 

4.  A  lower  genus  becomes  a  species  of  a  higher  ge- 
nus. Apple  is  a  genus  of  which  pippin  is  a  species ; 
but  apple  is  a  species  of  the  genus  fruit.  Man  is  a 
species  of  mammal.     Illustrate  by  the  cut. 

5.  Comjprehension.  I  perceive  this  orange.  I  ap- 
prehend it  as  an  object.  I  gain  the  notion,  this  orange. 
SeK,  as  perception,  apprehends  or  gains  percepts.  I 
discern  the  general  notion — orange.  I  also  discern  the 
higher  notion — fruit — and  say  the  orange  is  a  fruit.  I 
now  know  the  orange  in  its  relations — I  comprehend  it. 
Self,  as  conception,  comprehends  or  knows  things  in 
their  relations.     Illustrate  by  the  thought-pyramid. 

6.  Nomenclature  of  a  special  science.    Zoology  gives  us — 
Animal  Kingdom, 

Branches, 

Classes, 
Orders, 

Families, 

Genera, 

Species, 

Individuals. 

Botany,  geology,  chemistry,  etc.,  must  necessarily  have  special 
nomenclatures. 

Science  deals  only  incidentally  with  this  apple  or  that  rose ;  it 
deals  with  individuals  merely  to  discover  relations  of  similarity. 
The  individual  is  an  objective  reality.    In  the  individual  are  found 


CONCEPTION. 


163 


the  common  features  of  the  class.    The  class-notion  or  concept  is  a 
thought-product.     Science  deals  with  concepts. 

Classification  and  Definition. — We  analyze  when  we 
separate  a  whole  into  its  parts,  but  we  synthesize  when 
we  put  the  parts  together  to  make  a  whole.  You  at 
every  step  break  up  complex  wholes  into  simpler  parts, 
that  you  may  conquer  in  detail.  You  crown  your  vic- 
tory by  recombining  the  parts  into  old  or  new  wholes. 
You  observe  that  these  processes  supplement  each  oth- 
er, and  enter  into  all  thinking.  Ascending,  we  dis- 
criminate as  well  as  assimilate ;  descending,  we  assimi- 
late as  well  as  discriminate ;  but  in  the  first,  the  process 
is  pre-eminently  synthetic,  while  analysis  predominates 
in  the  second.  Beginning  at  the  base,  let  us  cautioiwly 
ascend  and  afterward  descend  the 

THOUGHT-PYRAMID.* 


1     BEINQ.    1 

BEINQS.. 

/ 

ORQANIC  DEINQ8. 

** 

o 
o 

ANIMALS. 

VERTEBRATES. 

0 

o 

MAMMALS. 

MAN. 

*<. 

CAUCASIAN. 

CORi 

i,  MARY,  JAMES,  RALPH 

,  SUSIE, 

ETC. 

Hopkins. 


164:       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Concejption  is  our  classifying  power.  We  perceive 
individuals  and  discern  resemblances.  Througli  resem- 
blances we  think  individuals  into  classes.  We  form 
concepts  and  give  names  to  these  class-notions.  This 
is  classification. 

Definition  is  referring  the  thing  defined  to  a  higher 
class,  and  giving  the  characteristic  differences.  Each 
step  upward  necessitates  definition  as  well  as  classifica- 
tion.    Logical  definition  alone  is  considered  here. 

1.  Caucasian.  You  perceive  Cora,  Mary,  James,  etc.  You  no- 
tice that  they  resemble  one  another  in  color,  and  you  think  of  them 
as  white  persons.  You 
thus   get  the  concept, 

white  race,  and  you  ex-  /^        r  A  C  e 

press  this  general  notion 
by  the  word  Caucasian. 
You  now  define  this 
word  by  referring  it  to 
its  genus  and  giving 
its  distinctive  feature. 
Caucasian  is  the  white 
race,  or 

Now  work  out  and  define  the  concepts  Mongolian,  Ethiopian, 
American,  and  Malayan. 

2.  Man.  You  find  that  the  several  races  resemble  one  another  in 
being  rational.  You  discern  the  notion,  rational  animals,  in  which 
you  include  all  the  races.  You  call  this  notion  human  race,  or  man. 
Wider     analytic     observation 

leads  to  the  discovery  that  the  y^    »a  a  M  M  >« 

highest  order  of  animals,  in-  / 

eluding  man,  give  suck  to  their  /        y^^     ^*S. 

young.    You  now  comprehend,   ]lTny>  _.  [       /  \ 

and    hence    can    define,   man.  I       /  \ 

Man  is  a  rational  mammal ;  or  \      I  ^^^     j 

3.  Mammal.  By  wider  syn-  \    \  / 
thesis  you  group  into  one  class                      ^v^"^**«*^___-''''^'^/^ 
all  suck-giving  animals.    These 


Caucasian  =  \      f  \ 

\       I  WHITE  I 


CONCEPTION. 


165 


Mammal  = 


you  term  mammalia.  A 
still  wider  analysis  brings 
out  the  fact  that  all 
mammals  are  vertebrates. 
Then  mammals  are  suck- 
giving  vertebrates,  or 

Grouping  with  ref- 
erence to  distribution, 
you  may  work  out  and 
define  the  concepts  aerial 
mammals,  aquatic  mam- 
mals, and  terrestrial  mammals.    Define  biological  species ;  logical. 

4.  Vertebrates.  You  find  out  that  other  beings  as  well  as  mam- 
malia are  backboned.  Thus  related,  you  think  all  creatures  having 
spinal  columns  into 
one  class — vertebrates. 
You  here  discover  that 
vertebrates  belong  to  a 
great  kingdom.  You 
now  define :  Verte-  Vertebrate  = 
brates  are  backboned 
animals,  or 

You  may  now 
work  out  and  define 
the  concepts  articu- 
lates, mollusks,  radiates,  and  protozoans.    Give  examples  of  each. 

5.  Animals.  By  a  comprehensive  synthesis  you  unite  all  creat- 
ures endowed  with  animal  life  into  one  class,  called  the  animal 
kingdom,  or  animals.  But  you  discover  beings  besides  animals  pos- 
sessing organs.   Now  you 

comprehend  animal  as  an 
organic  being  endowed 
with  animal  life  and  sen- 
sation, or 

Work  up  to  and  de- 
fine the  concept,  plant. 

6.  Organic  beings. 
By  a  sweeping  synthesis 
you  unite  all  beings  hav- 
ing life,  animal  and  vege- 


,G^^^c  ee/^ 


^s 


Animal  = 


I        SENSITIVE        j 


166       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

table,  into  a  single  class.  You  think — organic  world.  You  discover 
also  an  inorganic  world.  But  you  discern  a  relation  between 
organic  and  in- 
organic things — 
being.  You  com- 
prehend organic 
being     as    beings 

having  life,  or        Organic  Being  =1 

You  may  work 
up  and  define  the 
concept,  inorganic. 

7.  Beings  are. 
This  is  all  that  can 
be  said.  Extension  can  be  carried  no  further.  You  can  not  com- 
prehend, and  hence  can  not  define,  being.  You  have  reached  the 
limits  of  thought.  You  have  for  the  base  of  your  pyramid  sense- 
percepts,  and  for  its  apex  a  necessary  idea.  All  thought-cycles 
are  similar,  beginning  in  phenomena  and  ending  in  noumena. 

Conception  and  other  Faculties. — The  soul  is  a  unit. 
A  faculty  is  merely  a  capability  of  the  soul.  Concep- 
tion is  simply  seK  classifying  things  : 

1.  Perception  supplies  raw  material;  conception 
elaborates  crude  percepts  into  finished  concepts.  Per- 
cepts must  be,  in  order  that  concepts  may  be.  Here  we 
find  a  key  to  correct  teaching. 

2.  Memory  makes  present  again  our  percepts,  ena- 
bling us  to  view  them  side  by  side.  We  can  thus  discern 
resemblances  and  think  sameness.  Without  memory, 
conception  would  be  impossible.  When  we  recall  our 
percepts,  we  call  them  re-percepts ;  so  when  we  recall 
our  concepts,  we  term  them  re-concepts,  or  remembered 
concepts. 

3.  Imagination  and  phantasy  obscurely  outline  gen- 
eral notions ;  but  the  triangle  appears  without  corners 
and  the  soldier  without  weapons.     Still,  these  vague 


CONCEPTION.  167 

outlines  assist  us  to  clear  notions.  We  can  not  imagine 
a  concept.     Why  ?     Illustrate. 

4.  Judgment  and  reason  make  large  contributions. 
Indeed,  every  act  of  classification,  as  will  be  seen  fur- 
ther on,  involves  these  powers. 

Comparative  Psychology. — Can  the  brute  discern  gen- 
eral notions  ?  The  brute  perceives  things  and  notices 
resemblances,  but  can  it  think  sameness  ?  The  brute 
discerns  concrete  objects,  but  does  it  discern  abstract 
qualities?  Can  it  think  the  many  into  one?  Is  the 
brute  endowed  with  even  rudimentary  conception? 
Does  any  brute  use  intelligently  abstract  words  to  ex- 
press general  ideas  ?  Science,  at  the  present  time,  can 
only  give  negative  answers  to  these  questions. 

1.  Man  thinks  individual  notions  into  concepts  ;  the 
brute  perceives  individuals,  but  is  incapable  of  forming 
general  notions. 

2.  Man  uses  language  ;  the  brute  is  dumb.  The  in- 
stinctive cry  of  the  brute  is  not  language.  Only  man 
is  endowed  with  the  power  to  form  and  express  abstract 
notions. 

Growth  of  Conception. — Children,  when  two  or  three 
years  old,  make  crude  classifications.  Boys  and  girls 
classify  the  objective  world.  Youths  master  the  classi- 
fications of  sciences.  Men  master  systems.  The  steady 
growth  of  this  power  is  manifest  from  year  to  year. 

Education  of  Conception.^ — Development  of  concep- 
tion extends  mental  power  almost  infinitely.  I  think 
mammal,  and  it  is  equal  to  perceiving  millions  of  indi- 
viduals. You  are  able  easily  to  think  myriads  into  a 
few  classes.     Thus  you  make  science.     "  The  training 

*  See  "  Applied  Psychology." 


IQS       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

of  conception  should  begin  in  connection  with  sense- 
observation.  Objects  should  be  laid  in  juxtaposition, 
and  the  child  invited  to  discover  their  similarities  of 
form,  color,  etc.  And  here  his  active  impulses  may  be 
appealed  to  by  giving  him  a  confused  multitude  of  ob- 
jects and  inviting  him  to  sort  them  into  classes.  By 
such  a  direct  inspection  of  a  number  of  examples  to- 
gether, notions  of  simple  classes  of  natural  objects,  as 
species  of  animals  and  flowers,  as  well  as  of  geometric 
forms  and  numbers,  may  be  gained.  A  sufficient  variety 
of  instances  must  be  supplied  in  every  case,  but  the 
number  required  will  differ  according  to  the  character 
of  the  notion  to  be  formed.  This  operation  of  com- 
paring and  classifying  should  be  supplemented  by 
naming  the  objects  thus  grouped  together,  and  pointing 
out  in  the  form  of  a  delinition  the  more  important  of 
the  traits  they  have  in  common."  *  "  The  material  ob- 
jects, chalk,  salt,  coal,  and  the  common  metals,  will  af- 
ford us  numerous  lessons ;  and  so  will  the  series  of  in- 
quiries into  the  nature,  properties,  and  action  of  water. 
For  form  we  may  use  the  regular  solids,  surfaces,  and 
lines,  while  botany  and  natural  history  will  provide  an 
inexhaustible  supply  of  lessons  on  life.  The  main 
thing  will  be  to  make  sure  that  the  child  states,  in  clear, 
unambiguous  language  (which  he  understands),  only 
such/acts  as  he  has  really  observed^  \ 

BUG  QE8TJVE  STUD  Y-HINT8. 

Eeview.— Climb  the  tree  (p.  56)  and  ascend  the  pyramid  (p.  153> 
to  conception,  giving  definition,  office,  and  product  of  each  faculty. 
Give  the  distinction  between  perception  and  representation,  etc. 

*  Sully.  +  George  P.  Brown. 


CONCEPTION.  169 

What  is  thinking  f  Why  are  the  thinking  faculties  called  the 
comparative  powers'?  Why  the  logical  powers'?  The  elaborative 
faculties  1  The  reflective  faculties  ?  Give  the  meaning  of  discern. 
(We  perceive  things  having  properties,  and  discern  relations  be- 
tween things.) 

What  is  meant  by  conception  ?  Analyze  two  of  your  acts  of 
conception.  Tell  what  you  do.  Place  on  the  board  a  diagram 
showing  how  you  think  up  to  general  notions. 

First  step.  What  do  you  naean  by  analytic  observation  ?  Illus- 
trate. Why  does  this  come  first  ?  Second  step.  What  do  you  mean 
by  abstraction?  Illustrate.  Give  etymology  of  the  word.  What 
kind  of  concepts  are  hardship?  beauty?  goodness?  Third  step. 
What  do  you  mean  by  comparison?  Illustrate.  What  do  you 
discern?  Fourth  step.  What  do  you  mean  by  generalization? 
Illustrate.  Which  do  you  do  first,  abstract  or  generalize?  Fifth 
step.     What  do  you  mean  by  classification  ?    Illustrate. 

State  the  oflice  of  conception.  Illustrate.  Out  of  what  are 
sense-percepts  made  ?    Concepts  ? 

Name  the  first  characteristic  of  conception ;  the  second ;  the 
third.    How  do  imagination  and  conception  differ  ? 

Give  author's  definition  of  conception ;  yours ;  Schuyler's.  Why 
do  you  object  to  Day's? 

What  are  the  products  of  conception  called  ?  What  is  a  con- 
cept? Illustrate.  Why  are  concepts  called  general  notions?  group- 
notions?  class-notions?  Give  distinctions  between  percepts  and 
concepts.    Are  the  terms,  idea  and  notion,  synonyms  ? 

What  are  the  properties  of  a  concept  ?  What  do  you  mean  by 
denomination?  Give  five  examples.  What  do  you  mean  by  exten- 
sion ?  Illustrate  by  the  thought-pyramid,  beginning  at  the  bottom. 
What  do  you  mean  by  intention  ?  Illustrate  by  the  thought-pyra- 
mid, beginning  at  the  top. 

What  do  you  mean  by  an  individual  ?  by  a  species  ?  by  a  genus  ? 
Give  five  examples  of  each.  Give  the  distinction  between  appre- 
hension and  comprehension.  Give  five  examples.  In  what  sense  is 
species  used  in  zoOlogy  ?  in  logic  ? 

What  distinction  do  you  make  between  analysis  and  synthesis  ? 
Why  do  you  analyze  ?  Synthesize  ?  What  is  a  logical  definition  ? 
Write  on  the  board,  in  two  forms,  definitions  of  Ethiopian,  man, 
mammal,  vertebrate,  vegetable,  inorganic.  Why  can  not  being  be 
defined  ? 


170   ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Give  the  relation  of  conception  to  perception ;  to  memory ;  to 
imagination ;  to  judgment. 

Letter. — Write  with  great  care  a  letter  to  your  friend,  giving  a 
clear  account  of  conception.  As  this  is  the  most  difficult  of  the 
mental  powers  to  master,  you  may  ask  your  friend  to  study  it  pa- 
tiently and  work  it  out. 

Analysis  of  Chapter  XIV. 

L  Illnstrations. 

Percepts.  Concepts. 

IL   Acts  of  Conception  analyzed. 

Pencil.  Tree.  Lake. 

IIL   Elements  of  an  Act  of  Conception. 

Analytic  observation.  Generalization. 

Abstraction.  Classification. 

Comparison. 

IV.  Office  of  Conception. 

To  gain  concepts.  To  name  concepts. 

V.  Characteristics  of  Conception. 

Discerning  concepts.  Thinking,  but  not  picturing. 

Naming  concepts. 

VI.  Definitions  of  Conception. 

Author's.  Original.         Various. 

VII.  Names  of  Products  of  Conception. 

Concepts.  Group-notions. 

General  notions.  Class-notions. 

VIII.  Properties  of  Concepts. 

Denomination.  Intention  or  inclusion. 

Extension. 

IX.  Greneral  Nomenclatures. 

Individual.         Species.         Genus. 

X.  Definition. 

Refers  to  a  higher  class.        Gives  the  differentia. 

XI.   Comparative  Psychology. 
XII.  Growth  and  Education  of  fponception. 


JUDGMENT.  171 

CHAPTER  Xy. 

JUDGMENT. 

By  this  is  meant  the  power  to  discern  the  agree- 
ment or  disagreement  of  ideas.  You  say  the  mountain 
is  high;  here  you  discern  and  declare  the  agreement 
between  the  notions  high  and  mountain.  Perceptive- 
knowledge  and  thought-knowledge  differ  in  two  re- 
spects:  1.  We  gain  perceptive-knowledge  intuitively 
but  reach  thought  -  knowledge  by  processes  of  elab- 
oration. 2.  Perceptive  -  knowledge  is  concrete,  while 
thought-knowledge  is  abstract.  Concepts  are  our  first 
thought-products.  "We  think  things  into  classes  by  dis- 
cerning relations  of  resemblance.  As  the  reaper  binds 
the  wheat  in  bundles,  so  we  think  individual  things 
into  groups.  Judgments  are  our  next  higher  thought- 
products.  We  discover  that  ideas  are  so  related  as  to 
agree  or  disagree.  Self,  as  judgment,  discerns  and  as- 
serts the  agreement  and  disagreement  of  notions.  We 
discern  truth-relations,  which  we  express  in  sentences. 

Analysis   of   Acts   of  Judgment. — The    horse    is    a 


vertebrate.      (  (  horse  j    )      All  x  is  y. 


I  discern  and  assert  the  agreement  of  the  notions  ver- 
tebrate and  horse,  and  also  that  of  x  and  y.  Discern- 
ing and  asserting  the  agreement  of  notions  is  called 

13 


172       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY   AND   EDUCATION. 

judging.      Bees    are    not    vertebrates;    w    is    not    a;. 

X        I    f     «^     j      I  discern  the  disagreement  of 

the  notions  bee  and  vertebrate  ;  also  of  w  and  x.  Dis- 
cerning and  asserting  the  disagreement  of  notions  is 
called  judging.  The  capability  to  discern  the  agree- 
ment or  disagreement  of  notions  is  termed  judgment. 


The  oyster  is  a  mollusk. 

The  Chinese  are  not  Caucasians,  f    Caucasian   J    f  chineseJ 

I  discern  agreement  between  the  notions  oyster  and 
mollusk,  and  that  the  former  is  included  in  the  latter. 
I  express  this  agreement  by  saying  the  oyster  is  a  mol- 
lusk. I  discern  disagreement  between  the  notions  Chi- 
nese and  Caucasian,  and  that  one  is  not  included  in  the 
other,  and  I  express  this  disagreement  by  saying  that 
the  Chinese  are  not  Caucasians. 

Office  of  Judgment. — Self,  as  judgment,  elaborates 
percepts  and  concepts  into  truths  ;  as.  Pope  was  a  poet ; 
Burr  was  not  a  patriot.  In  discerning  the  agreement 
and  disagreement  of  notions  we  discern  truths. 

1.  The  mind,  as  judgment,  discerns  the  agreement 
or  disagreement  of  notions.     This  is   primary.     "We 


JUDGMENT.  173 

find  that  ideas  are  so  related  as  to  agree  or  disagree. 
We  discern  agreement  between  the  notions  wise  and 
Bacon. 

2.  The  mind,  as  judgment,  asserts  the  agreement  or 
disagreement  of  notions.  We  not  only  discern  the  re- 
lation between  the  ideas,  but  we  also  assert  agreement; 
as,  Bacon  was  wise. 

3.  The  mind,  as  judgment,  elaborates  notions  into 
truths.  The  evolution  of  truth  is  pre-eminently  the 
office  of  judgment.  In  discerning  the  agreement  of 
two  notions  you  discern  a  truth ;  as,  the  earth  is 
round. 

Characteristics  of  Judgment. — The  following  marks 
distinguish  this  capability : 

1.  Self,  as  judgment,  discerns  truth-relations.  No- 
tions agree,  as,  silver  is  a  metal.  The  agreement  is  real, 
is  true.  Judgment  is  our  capability  to  discern  this 
agreement.  Beings  destitute  of  judgment  are  incapa- 
ble of  cognizing  truth. 

2.  Self,  as  judgment,  thhiks  notions  into  proposi- 
tions. Judgment  is  our  sentence-making  power.  We 
discern  and  predicate  truth-relations.  Each  declarative 
sentence  expresses  an  act  of  judgment. 

3.  Self,  as  judgment,  accepts  his  predications  as  true. 
When  the  predication  accords  with  reality,  we  accept 
the  proposition  as  true ;  but  when  the  predication  does 
not  accord  with  reality,  we  reject  the  proposition  as 
false.  Judgment  is  an  esaential  element  of  belief.  I 
believe,  or  accept  as  true,  that  Columbus  discovered 
America ;  but  I  disbelieve,  or  reject  as  false,  that  Wasli- 
ington  was  King  of  England.  Because  I  have  the  power 
to  discern  truth  relation,  I  accept  as  true  my  predications. 


174       ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

-,-         ^     i.  T  ^         ^   \  Discernment  of  truth-relations. 
Elements  of  Judgment,  i   .        ^  ^    ^    ^i    i  i 

^  (  Assent  to  truth  discerned. 

1.  As  judgment,  self  discerns  truth-relations,  l^o- 
tions  agree ;  this  agreement  is  termed  truth-relation, 
since  the  assertion  of  the  agreement  is  either  true  oi 
untrue.  Space  is  infinite ;  Csesar  was  perfect ;  as  judg- 
ment, the  soul  discerns  the  truth  of  the  first  proposition, 
and  the  untruth  of  the  second. 

2.  As  judgment,  self  assents  to  truth  discerned. 
The  soul  discerns  truth  and  accepts  it.  Truth  is  har- 
mony with  reality.  The  soul  is  so  constituted  that  i1 
believes  its  predications  of  truth-relations.  I  discerr 
the  agreement  of  the  notions  man  and  biped,  and  1 
accept  as  true  that  man  is  a  biped.     I  beheve  it. 

Judgment  defined. — Judgment,  judging,  and  a  judg- 
ment represent  the  faculty,  the  act,  and  the  product, 
Judging  is  the  act  of  predicating  the  agreement  or  dis- 
agreement of  notions.  A  judgment  is  the  expression  oi 
the  agreement  or  disagreement  of  notions.  A  judg- 
ment is  called  a  proposition  or  a  sentence. 

1.  Judgment  is  the  mental  jpower  to  discern  ana 
predicate  the  agreement  or  disagreement  of  notions;  as, 
I  discern  the  agreement  of  the  notions  man  and  animal, 
and  make  the  predication  that  man  is  an  animal.  1 
rIso  discern  the  disagreement  of  the  notions  bird  and 
mammal,  and  make  the  predication  that  birds  are  not 
mammals. 

2.  Original.  You  may  write  your  definition  oi 
judgment  and  give  illustrations.  What  is  judging^ 
What  is  a  judgment  ? 

3.  Various  Definitions. — 1.  Stormouth  :  Judgment  is  the  facultj 
to  discern  truth.    2,  McCosh  ;  Judgment  is  the  power  to  compan 


JUDGMENT.  175 

notions  as  to  agreement  or  disagreement.  3.  Sully  :  Judgment  is 
the  capability  to  predicate  one  idea  of  another.  4.  Hamilton  :  Judg- 
ment is  the  power  to  recognize  the  relation  of  congruence  or  conflict 
between  notions.  5.  Dewey  :  Judgment  is  the  power  to  refer  ideas 
to  realities,  and  affirm  truth-relations.  6.  Dunton  :  Judgment  is  the 
faculty  of  the  mind  by  which  we  know  the  relation  between  two  ob- 
jects of  knowledge. 

Terms  of  a  Judgment. — We  discern  the  congruence 
or  incongruence  of  notions,  and  predicate  these  truth- 
relations.  A  judgment  embodied  in  language  is  called 
a  proposition  or  a  sentence,  and  consists  of  three  parts  : 
subject,  predicate,  and  copula.  The  terms  (from  ter- 
mini,  extremes)  are  the  subject  and  predicate. 

1.  The  subject  is  the  basis  of  the  judgment.  It  is 
that  of  which  we  assert  the  agreement  or  disagree- 
ment. The  subject  is  always  a  noun,  or  some  word  or 
expression  used  as  such.  It  may  be  a  percept,  as,  Arnold 
was  a  traitor ;  or  a  concept,  as,  some  girls  are  studious. 

2.  The  predicate  is  that  which  is  affirm^  or  denied 
of  the  subject.  The  copula  and  predicate  are  often  con- 
densed into  one  term  ;  as,  God  is.  When  expanded,  we 
have  the  regular  form,  God  is  existing.  The  predicate 
is  always  a  concept. 

3.  The  copula  expresses  the  act  of  judging.  Because 
it  unites  the  terms  of  the  judgment,  it  is  called  the 
copula.  It  is  present  in  every  act  of  judgment,  either 
expressed  or  included  in  the  predicate. 

Properties  and  Classification  of  Judgments. — In  logic, 
judgments  are  classified  with  reference  to  quantity, 
quality,  relation,  modality,  etc.  For  full  treatment  of 
this  topic,  the  student  is  referred  to  works  on  logic. 
Psychology  seeks  merely  to  unfold  the  nature  of  the 
judging  activity. 


176       ELEMENT  A.RY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


Judgments 
may  be 
classified 


As  to  Quantity. 
As  to  Quality. 
As  to  Relation. 


Universal. 

Particular. 

.  „        ,.       j  Universal. 
Affirmative.  <  -r.    , .     , 

(  Particular. 

(  Universal. 
Negative,      j  particular. 

-J     Ao4^^  -D.i„4-,-^„    (Categorical. 
Hypothetical. 

i  Possible. 
As  to  Modality.  •<  Probable, 
r  Certain. 

As  to  Process.   \  ^     ^l  ^•' 
(  Synthetic. 

1.  Quantity  refers  to  the  extension  of  the  subject 
As  to  quantity,  judgments  are  universal  or  particular 
(1.)  Universal  judgments  are  those  in  which  the  predi 
cation  is  of  the  entire  class ;  as,  all  men  are  fallible 
all  a?  is  y  ;  no  man  is  perfect  \  no  w  i^  x.  (2.)  Par 
ticular  judgments  are  those  in  which  the  predication  h 
of  a  percept  or  of  a  part  of  a  class ;  as,  Mary  is  wise 
some  boys  are  studious ;  some  y  is  x  *  some  boys  an 
not  studious ;  some  y  is  not  x.  Give  five  examples 
and  illustrate  by  figures. 

2.  Quality  refers  to  the  congruence  or  incongruena 
of  notions.  As  to  quality,  judgments  are  affirmative  oi 
negative.  (1.)  Positive  judgments  predicate  the  con- 
gruence of  notions ;  as,  all  elephants  are  quadrupeds : 
some  men  are  wise.  Give  five  universal  affirmative 
judgments  and  five  particular  affirmatives.  (2.)  lN"ega- 
tive  judgments  predicate  the  incongruence  of  notions ; 
as,  no  bird  is  a  mammal ;  some  men  are  not  wise.  Give 
five  universal  negative  and  five  particular  negative 
judgments,  illustrating  by  figures. 


JUDGMENT.  177 

Judgment  and  other  Faculties. — In  gaining  concepts 
>7e  necessarily  judge.  Percepts  and  concepts  are  the 
materials  out  of  which  we  make  judgments.  Ee-percepts 
and  re-concepts  are  simply  remembered  percepts  and 
concepts.  Re-judgments  are  remembered  judgments. 
Imagination  helps  in  arranging  the  materials.  Self,  as 
judgment,  discerns  the  truth-relations  between  notions. 
Reason  enables  us  to  compare  judgments  and  infer  con- 
clusions. It  is  clear  that  judgment  enters  in  some 
form  into  all  distinct  knowing ;  and  it  is  equally  cer- 
tain that  judging  involves  all  the  other  intellectual 
powers.     The  soul  is  a  unit  in  knowing. 

Comparative  Psychology. — The  brute  is  incapable  of 
abstraction,  hence  can  not  form  concepts.  As  the  predi- 
cate of  a  judgment  is  necessarily  a  concept j  it  is  evident 
that  the  brute  is  not  endowed  with  judgment  in  the  sense 
of  the  capability  to  discern  tnith-relations.  Many  brute 
acts  seem  to  indicate  the  exercise  of  judgment,  but  it  is 
believed  that  all  brnte  activity  can  be  accounted  for  with- 
out supposing  the  brute  to  be  endowed  with  this  power. 

Axioms  are  Necessary  Judgments.  —  Generalizations 
from  necessary  ideas  are  necessary  judgments.  These 
judgments  are  self-evident  truths.  They  may  be  veri- 
fied, but  can  not  be  proved.  All  axioms  are  necessary 
judgments.  The  parts  of  this  apple  are  equal  to  this 
whole.  So  of  this  orange  and  this  cube.  From  my 
intuitive  insight  into  the  relations  of  the  parts  to  the 
whole,  I  discern  the  general  truth — the  parts  are  equal 
to  the  whole.  The  soul  perceives  directly  necessary 
ideas,  and  from  these  elaborates  self-evident  truths. 

Growth  of  Judgment.* — Conception  is  exercised  ear- 

*  See  "  Education  of  Judgment,"  "Applied  Psychology." 


5f8       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Her  than  judgment,  but  at  a  very  early  age  children 
form  crude  judgments  about  food  and  surroundings. 
At  first  they  use  percepts  as  the  subjects  of  their  judg- 
ments. When  about  three  years  old,  the  child  begins 
to  use  concepts  as  subjects.  IS'ow  the  child  becomes 
more  careful  about  his  statements  as  the  truth-idea  be- 
gins to  be  realized.  Judgment  gradually  develops,  and 
in  youth  seems  to  reach  full  activity,  though  continu- 
ing to  grow  throughout  active  life. 

SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

Review. — Give  your  definition  and  illustration  of  conception; 
of  concept ;  of  abstraction ;  of  generalization ;  of  definition.  What 
is  the  material  of  which  we  make  concepts  ?  concepts  ?  ideals  ? 

What  is  meant  by  judgment?  Give  the  distinction  between 
perceptive-knowledge  and  thought-knowledge.  What  are  our  first 
thought-products  ?  What  relations  of  things  enable  us  to  think  in- 
dividuals into  groups  ?  into  sentences  ? 

Analyze  several  of  your  acts  of  judgment.  What  do  you  dis- 
cern? What  relations  of  notions  enable  us  to  think  ideas  into 
propositions?    Give  five  examples. 

Give  the  author's  definition  of  judgment;  your  definition; 
McCosh's  definition  ;  Hamilton's  definition.     Define  a  judgment. 

What  are  the  terms  of  a  judgment  ?  Define  and  illustrate.  Give 
the  properties  of  a  judgment.     Define  and  illustrate. 

Out  of  what  are  judgments  made  ?  What  do  you  call  a  remem- 
bered percept  ?  concept  ?  judgment  ?  How  does  memory  help  in 
judgment?    What  aid  does  imagination  give? 

Does  the  brute  judge?  How  do  you  account  for  the  remarkable 
acts  of  dogs  ?  foxes  ?  horses  ?  elephants  ? 

What  is  a  necessary  judgment  ?  Are  axioms  necessary  judg- 
ments? What  distinction  do  you  make  between  a  necessary  idea 
and  a  necessary  judgment  ? 

Do  we  perceive  necessary  truths  in  the  abstract  ?    Illustrate. 

Letter. — You  may  now  write  a  letter,  giving  your  friend  your 
Tiews  of  judgment.     Let  all  the  illustrations  be  yours. 


JUDGMENT.  179 


Analysis  of  Chafier  XV. 

I.  Analysis  of  an  Act  of  Judgment. 

II.   Office  of  Judgment. 

Discerning  agreement.  Predicating. 

Discerning  disagreement. 

III.   Characteristics  of  Judgment. 

Present  in  all  knowing.         Believed  or  disbelieved. 
True  or  false. 

lY.  Elements. 

Discernment  of  truth-relations. 
Assent  to  truth  discerned. 

V.  Definitions  of   " 

Judgment. — Original.    Quoted. 
Judging.  A  judgment. 

VI.  Terms  of  a  Judgment. 

Subject — may  be  a  percept  or  a  concept. 
Predicate — must  be  a  concept. 
Copula. 

VII.  Properties  and  Classes. 

Quantity. —  Universal.  Particular. 

Quality. — Positive. 

Universal  affirmative. 

Universal  negative. 
Negative. 

Particular  affirmative. 

Particular  negative. 

yill.  Judgment,  and  other  Faculties. 

Perception,  Conception,  and  Memory  furnish  materials. 

Reason  tests  the  judgment. 

Judgment  contributes  the  truth-element  to  all  knowing. 

IX.  Comparative  Psychology — Brutes  not  endowed  with 
Judgment. 

X.   Necessary  Judgments. 

XI.   Growth  and  Education  of  Judgment. 


180       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


CHAPTEK  XYI. 


KEASON. 


By  this  is  meant  our  power  to  reach  conclusions. 
As  all  intentional  violation  of  law  is  sin,  and  as  fraud 
is  intentional  violation  of  law,  we  reach  the  conclusion 
that  fraud  is  sin.  You  reason  when  you  use  intelligent- 
ly such  terms  as  "  hence^''  "  therefore^''  "  hecause,^^  etc. 
You  arrive  at  conclusions  through  judgments.  You  so 
combine  two  propositions  as  to  discern,  or  infer,  or 
draw,  or  reach  a  conclusion.  Your  capability  to  do  this 
is  called  reason. 

Acts  of  Reason  analyzed. — Self,  as  reason,  infers  con- 
clusions from  premises,  and  hence  is  sometimes  called 
the  power  of  inference.  Let  us  examine  some  easy 
acts  of  reason. 


All  birds  have  wings, 

The  thrush  is  a  bird, 

.*.  The  thrush  has  wings. 


Rational    beings    are     ac- 
countable, 
Man  is  rational, 
.*.  Man  is  accountable. 


"We  accept  the  first  and  second  judgments  as  true, 
and  through  these  judgments  discern  the  conclusion. 


REASON.  181 

Self,  as  reason,  discerns  conclusions.    Change  one  term^ 
and  we  have : 


All  birds  are  vertebrates, 

Doves  are  birds, 

.'.  Doves  are  vertebrates. 


yisa?, 
sisy, 
.*.  z  is  X, 


Since  doves  are  birds,  and  birds  are  vertebrates,  we 
discern  the  conclusion,  doves  are  vertebrates.  So,  since 
z  is  included  in  y,  and  y  in  a?,  we  discern  that  z  is  in- 
cluded in  X.  We  call  the  act  reasoning  when  we  dis- 
cern conclusions,  and  we  call  the  power  to  discern  con- 
clusions reason. 

Cause-Relations. — Self,  as  reason,  discerns  cause-rela- 
tions. The  relations  of  causes  and  eUects,  means  and 
ends,  conditions  and  interdependencies,  antecedents  and 
consequents,  wholes  and  parts,  proportions  and  analo- 
gies, etc.,  are  discerned  through  the  medium  of  inter- 
locked judgments.  Cause-relations  are  all-pervading. 
From  the  atom  to  the  Infinite  First  Cause,  cause-rela- 
tions bind  together  all  things.  The  universe  is  a  cause- 
unit.  Reason  is  our  capability  to  discern  cause-relations 
and  cause-unity. 

Office  of  Eeason. — Self,  as  reason,  discerns  cause-rela- 
tions. When  we  discern  class-relations,  we  conceive; 
when  we  discern  truth-relations,  we  judges  but,  when 
we  discern  cause-relations,  we  reason. 


182       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


1.  Self^  as  reason^  infers  particulars  from  gen- 
erals. All  things  are  so  related  that  these  inferences 
are  safe : 


All  minerals  are  valuable, 
Bismuth  is  a  mineral, 
.'.  Bismuth  is  valuable. 


All  M  is  P, 
All  S  is  M, 
/.  All  S  is  P. 


Granted  that  all  minerals  are  valuable,  we  may 
safely  infer  value  of  any  mineral,  however  unfa- 
miliar. 

2.  Self  as  reason,  infers  generals  from  jparticulars. 
Since  the  universe  is  a  cause-unit,  and  since  laws  are 
ever  the  same,  we  may  safely  infer  general  truths  from 
particular  truths.  In  this  case,  and  this,  and  this,  light 
diminishes  as  the  square  of  the  distance  increases,  and 
we  safely  infer  this  as  a  general  law.  The  sum  of  the 
three  angles  of  this  triangle  is  equal  to  two  right  angles ; 
but  this  triangle  represents  all  triangles ;  therefore  we 
infer  the  general  truth — the  sum  of  the  three  angles  of 
a  triangle  is  equal  to  two  right  angles. 

3.  Self  as  reason,  verifies  his  conclusion's.  By 
analysis  we  reduce  our  arguments  to  judgments,  our 
judgments  to  concepts,  and  our  concepts  to  percepts. 
.By  synthesis  we  reconstruct  our  arguments.  By  these 
processes  we  subject  our  conclusions  to  the  tests  of  law 
and  reality.     • 


REASON.  183 

Characteristics  of  Eeason. — The  soul,  as  reason,  so 
combines  two  propositions  as  to  reach  a  more  remote 
truth  : 

1.  Reason  is  the  jpower  of  inference.  As  all  men 
are  fallible,  we  infer  that  kings  are  fallible.  A  being 
without  reason  is  unable  to  derive  truths  from  other 
truths.     Only  rational  beings  draw  conclusions. 

2.  Reason  is  the  sdence-^making  power.  In  dis- 
cerning truths  in  their  causal  relations,  we  discover 
laws  and  systematize  knowledge.  Man  is  a  science- 
maker. 

3.  Reason  is  the  power  to  accept  conclusions.  Self, 
as  reason,  accepts  his  inferences  as  true.  This  is  called 
intellectual  assent  or  belief.  Through  the  medium  of 
the  proofs  we  discern  the  conclusions  that  Washington 
was  President ;  that  the  earth  revolves  around  the 
sun ;  that  the  square  described  on  the  hypotenuse  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  described  on  the  other 
two  sides  of  a  right-angled  triangle ;  and  we  accept  these 
conclusions  as  true.  We  assent  to  these  conclusions ;  we 
believe  these  truths. 

Definitions  of  Reason. — Self,  as  reason,  discerns  new 
truths  by  comparing  other  truths.  Truths  are  so  related 
that  we  can  infer  conclusions  from  premises. 

1.  Reason  is  the  capability  to  discern  conclusions. 
Reason  is  the  power  to  discern  cause-relations.  Reason- 
ing is  inferring  conclusions  from  premises.  A  reason 
is  the  expression  of  an  act  of  reasoning. 

2.  Omginal  definition.  Write  out  and  illustrate 
your  definition.  What  do  you  do  when  you  reason? 
What  relation  do  you  discover  between  the  proof  and 
the  conclusion  \ 


184       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


3.  Various  Definitions. — 1.  Sully  :  Eeason  is  the  power  to  derive 
oonclusions  from  premises.  2.  Porter  :  Reason  is  the  power  to  dis- 
cern the  agreement  or  disagreement  of  judgments.  3.  McCosh: 
Reason  is  the  power  to  compare  two  notions  by  means  of  a  third. 
4.  Bascom  :  Reason  is  the  capability  to  reach  conclusions  by  means 
of  related  judgments.  5.  Everest  :  Reason  is  the  capability  to 
combine  two  propositions,  and  thus  reach  a  proposition  more  remote. 
6.  WuNDT :  Reason  is  the  power  to  unite  two  judgments  in  a  new 
judgment.  7.  Dunton:  Reason  is  the  faculty  to  gain  new  truth 
through  truths  already  known. 

Logic  is  the  science  of  the  laws  of  thought.  Just  now 
you  are  struggling  to  understand  the  thinking  powers. 
Later  you  will  study  the  laws  of  thought  and  their  appli- 
cations. That  we  may  better  understand  the  reasoning 
process,  we  will  briefly  examine  the  products  of  reasoning : 

1.  Names.  A  product  of  reason  is  termed  a  reason, 
an  argument,  or  a  syllogism.  An  argument  stated  in  reg- 
ular logical  form  is  called  a  syllogism. 

C  (  Reasons. 

1.  Names. —  ■<  Arguments. 
(  Syllogisms. 
c  Major  Term. 

2.  Terms.—  \  Middle  Term. 
(.  Minor  Term. 

I   Major  Premise. 

3.  Propositions. —  •<   Minor  Premise. 
(.  Conclusion. 


All    material     substances 

gravitate, 
Air  is  a  material  substance, 
.*.  Air  gravitates. 


Products  of  Eeason.— 


REASON.  185 

Ordinarily,  arguments  are  informal,  as,  "Iron  is  a 
material  substance  ;  /.  iron  gravitates." 

2.  Terms,  A  syllogism  is  an  argument  in  regular 
form,  and  contains  three  terms.  The  major  term  is  the 
predicate,  and  the  minor  the  subject  of  the  conclusion. 
The  middle  term  is  the  medium  of  comparison. 


All  B  is  A, 
All  C  is  B, 
/.  All  C  is  A. 


3.  Propositions.  In  every  argument  three  proposi- 
tions are  expressed  or  implied :  (1)  the  major  premise, 
which  predicates  the  agreement  or  disagreement  of  the 
middle  and  major  terms ;  (2)  the  minor  premise, 
which  predicates  the  agreement  or  disagreement  of  the 
minor  and  middle  terms ;  (3)  the  conclusion,  which 
predicates  the  agreement  or  disagreement  of  the  minor 
and  major  terms.  Point  out  and  explain  the  terms  and 
propositions  in  the  following  reasons,  and  illustrate  by 
the  figures : 

All  responsible  agents  are  free, 

Man  is  a  responsible  agent, 

.'.  Man  is  free. 

All  metals  are  expanded  by  heat, 

Zinc  is  a  metal, 

.'.  Zinc  is  expanded  by  heat. 


188       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND   EDUCATION. 


(3.)  Mathematical  induction.  One  case  is  sufficient  to 
justify  the  inference.     Is  this  peculiar  to  mathematics  ? 

The  sum  of  the  three  angles  of  this  triangle  is  equal  to  two 
right  angles ; 

But  this  is  a  typical  triangle ; 

.*.  The  sum  of  the  three  angles  of  any  triangle  is  equal  to  two 
right  angles. 

(Give  two  examples,  and  show  that  a  single  typical  case  justifies 
a  general  conclusion.) 

2.  Deductive  reasoning  is  inferring  particulars  from 
generals.  Through  the  medium  of  general  truths  we 
discern  particular  truths : 

(1.)  Illustrations.     Again   study  the  human  hand. 
Now  you  begin  with  the  arm  as  representing  the  gen- 
eral truth,  and  you  let  each  iin- 
'^^NViTAr/(^;r\  ger  represent  a  particular  truth. 

'vAljTi^J\    \      Also,  place  on  board  diverging 
lines  as  follows : 


All  material  substances  grav- 


itate 


Diamond  is  a  material  sub- 
stance ; 
.*.  Diamond  gravitates. 


(2.)  Major  premise.   .  The  conclusions  of  our  induc- 
tions become  the  major  premises  for  our  deductions. 


REASOX.  189 

(3.)  Deduction  in  science.  By  induction  we  dis- 
cover laws,  and  by  deduction  we  apply  laws.  Thus  sci- 
ence is  build ed. 

3.  Verification  is  resolving  arguments  into  their 
elements,  and  reuniting  these  elements  into  arguments. 
Syllogisms  are  reduced  to  judgments,  judgments  to  con- 
cepts, and  concepts  to  percepts.     This  is  termed  the 

(1.)  Analytic  test.  By  analysis,  we  resolve  arguments  into  ele- 
ments. Thus  we  examine  the  foundations  of  reasoning  and  test  the 
validity  of  our  reasoning.    Take  this  syllogism : 

Men  are  rational, 

Negroes  are  men, 

.*.  Negroes  are  rational. 

We  reduce  the  argument  to  judgments  in  order  to  examine  each 
judgment  separately.  We  reduce  the  major  premise  to  the  con- 
cepts men  and  rational.  We  reduce  the  concepts  men  and  rational 
to  elementary  percepts  to  test  their  agreement.  In  the  same  way 
we  reduce  the  minor  premise  and  the  conclusion. 

(2.)  Synthetic  test.  By  synthesis,  we  combine  elements  into  ar- 
guments. We  think  individual  notions  into  the  concepts  men  and 
rational.  We  discern  the  agreement  of  men  and  rational,  and  form 
the  judgment  men  are  rational. 

In  the  same  way  we  synthesize  the  minor  premise  and  conclu- 
sion. Does  the  conclusion  follow  from  the  premises  ?  This  is  the 
final  question. 

Disbelief;  Doubt,  Certainty. — Self,  as  reason,  when  a 
conclusion  is  disproved  by  facts,  rejects  it  as  false.  We 
disbelieve  that  the  earth  is  the  center  of  the  solar  sys- 
tem. When  the  evidence  is  insufficient  or  conflicting, 
we  doubt ;  but  when  the  evidence  is  conclusive,  we  ac- 
cept the  conclusion  as  certain.  Self,  as  reason,  discerns 
conclusions  and  accepts  them  as  true.  We  believe  the 
earth  is  spherical,  because  the  proofs  satisfy  reason.  We 
believe  Arnold  was  a  traitor,  because  the  testimony  is 


190       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

conclusive.     Assenting  to  conclusions  as  true  is  intel- 
lectual belief. 

1.  Disbelief.  When  a  conclusion  is  not  sustained  by 
proofs,  we  disbelieve  it.  We  disbelieve  the  story  of  Tell 
and  the  apple,  because  the  proofs  are  wanting.  Belief 
comes  from  evidence.  "  Faith  comes  by  hearing."  In 
the  absence  of  evidence,  belief  is  impossible.  When  the 
facts  clearly  disprove  a  conclusion,  we  disbelieve  it  and 
reject  it  as  false.      Unbelief  is  the  absence  of  belief. 

2.  Doubt.  When  the  proofs  are  insufficient,  we 
doubt.  Are  the  planets  inhabited  ?  We  doubt,  because 
the  proofs  do  not  satisfy  us. 

3.  Degrees  of  belief  Belief  varies  as  the  proofs 
vary.  We  accept  the  nebular  hypothesis  as  possible. 
We  accept  evolution  in  some  form  as  probable.  We 
accept  the  atomic  theory  as  highly  probable.  Business 
men  base  their  operations  largely  on  estimated  proba- 
bilities. 

4.  Certainty.  Accumulative  proof  as  well  as  de- 
monstrative proof  gives  certainty.  We  know  that  the 
three  angles  of  a  triangle  are  equal  to  two  right  angles, 
for  the  mathematical  proofs  are  demonstrative.  We 
know  with  equal  certainty  that  Washington  was  Presi- 
dent, for  the  cumulative  testimony  renders  doubt  im- 
poFsible.  When  proof  is  sufficient  to  establish  the  con- 
clusion as  absolutely  certain,  we  accept  it  without  the 
shadow  of  a  doubt ;  we  believe  it  absolutely. 

Beason  and  Faith. — "  To  believe  a  thing  is  to  regard  it  as  true. 
Truth  is  harmony  with  universal  intelligence."  "  Faith  is  the  highest 
product  of  reason."  Faith  is  not  a  faculty,  but  a  complete  act  of 
faith  involves  all  the  faculties.  The  elements  of  practical  faith  are 
intellectual  assent,  confidence,  trust. 

1.  Intellectual  assent,    The  soul  dJSQeras  the  conclusion,  "  All 


REASON.  191 

life  comes  from  antecedent  life."  We  assent  to  this  proposition, 
accept  it  as  true,  believe  it.  Intellectual  assent  to  truth  discerned 
is  the  fundamental  element  in  belief  or  faith.  So  far,  belief  is  purely 
intellectual.  This  is  what  is  meant  by  the  cold  logic  of  mathe- 
matics. But  faith  means  much  more  than  intellectual  assent.  It 
means  also  confidence  and  trust  as  well.  It  involves  the  emotions 
and  the  will  as  well  as  the  intellect.  Faith  works  by  love,  purifies 
the  heart,  and  leads  on  to  good  lives.  But  the  basis  is  truth  dis- 
cerned.   Blind  credulity  is  not  faith.    Only  rational  beings  believe. 

r  Proofs. 
1.  Antecedents  of  Assent.  <  Reasons. 

,  '  Evidences. 

Belief  or  Faith. \    2.  Intellectual  Assent. 

/   1.  Confidence — 
3.  Consequents  of  Assent.  )  Emotion. 

(  2.  Trust— Will. 

2.  Confidence.  We  confide  in  the  evidence  as  well  as  in  our 
abilities  to  discern  truth.  We  have  not  the  means  to  make  ex- 
haustive experiments  for  ourselves,  but  we  have  confidence  in  Tyn- 
dall  and  other  great  scientists.  We  believe  them  to  be  honest  and 
capable.  We  not  only  assent  to  the  conclusion,  "  All  life  comes  from 
antecedent  life,"  but  we  accept  it  with  confidence.  We  discern  this 
stupendous  truth  and  confide  in  it.  We  believe  with  the  emotions 
as  well  as  with  the  intellect. 

3.  Trust.  We  trust  where  we  believe.  The  engineer  believes 
the  new  bridge  to  be  safe,  and  trusts  his  train  upon  it.  We  trust  in 
Tyndall  and  other  great  scientists,  and  make  the  conclusion,  "  All  life 
comes  from  antecedent  life,"  the  corner-stone  of  science.  We  assent 
we  confide,  we  trust.  Faith  begins  in  intellectual  assent,  works  by 
love,  and  culminates  in  action.  Faith  makes  society  possible,  and 
life  worth  living.  Faith  is  the  condition  of  progress  and  achieve- 
ment. Life  is  too  short  for  one  person  to  experience  much,  but  by 
faith  each  one  builds  on  the  experience  of  others.  By  faith  the 
vicarious  experience  of  the  race  is  appropriated  by  the  individual. 
The  scientist  walks  by  sight  in  one  case,  but  by  faith  in  a  thovsand 


Growth  of  Reason. — The  power  of  inference  is  the 
latest  of  all  the  intellectual  faculties  to  reach  full  ac- 
tivity.   When  children  not  more  than  three  years  old 


192       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

startle  their  parents  with  troublesome  wTiys^  it  is  only 
budding  reason,  crude  and  concrete.  The  boy  begins  to 
solve  problems  and  to  debate,  thus  indicating  a  steady 
growth  of  this  faculty.  Reason  does  not  often  reach  its 
highest  activity  before  the  twentieth  year.  Its  growth 
throughout  active  life  is  everywhere  evident.  "  Old 
men  for  counsel "  attests  the  popular  belief  in  this  fact. 

Education  of  Reason.* — "  The  culture  of  reason  has  been  very 
generally  neglected  in  our  methods  of  teaching.  The  oJrject  of  teach- 
ers seems  to  have  been  to  fill  the  memory  with  the  facts  and  truths 
of  a  subject,  rather  than  to  develop  the  power  by  which  these 
truths  were  obtained.  They  have  failed  to  develop  the  power  of 
original  thought  and  investigation.  Even  in  teaching  thought- 
studies,  memory  has  been  brought  into  activity  more  than  thought. 
The  mind  has  too  often  been  regarded  as  a  capacity  to  be  filled, 
rather  than  an  activity  to  be  developed.  Teachers  have  aimed  to 
put  knowledge  into  the  mind,  as  we  pour  water  into  a  vessel,  or 
shovel  coal  into  a  coal-bin ;  while  the  power  that  originates  knowl- 
edge, that  works  up  ideas  and  thoughts  into  laws  and  principles,  has 
been  neglected, 

"  This  culture  should  be  carefully  adapted  to  the  age  and  de- 
velopment of  the  pupils.  Children  should  be  taught  to  compare 
objects,  to  inquire  for  causes,  and  to  see  •  the  relation  of  things  to 
one  another.  Inductive  reasoning  should  precede  deductive ;  causes 
should  be  presented  before  laws  and  principles;  and  deductive 
thought  and  the  generalizations  of  science  should  be  introduced  as 
the  mind  becomes  prepared  for  them."  f 

Comparative  Psychology. — Does  the  brute  reason  %  Does  it  dis- 
cern cause  relations?  Does  it  infer  conclusions  from  premises? 
Does  any  brute  give  indications  of  possessing  even  rudimentary  rea- 
son I  "  There  seems  to  be  no  proof,"  says  Bascom,  "  that  even  the 
most  sagacious  brutes  form  judgments  or  induce  or  deduce  conclu- 
sions from  premises.  The  brute  is  endowed  with  sense-perception, 
memory,  and  phantasy.    These  faculties,  we  believe,  fully  account 

*  Brooks's  "  Mental  Science  and  Culture." 

t  See  "  Education  of  Keason,"  "  Applied  Psychology." 


REASON.  193 

for  all  brute  phenomena.  The  animal  has  to  do  directly  with  things 
and  their  images.  The  animal  can  not  form  ideas,  and  hence  can 
not  be  taught  language.  Man  alone  gains  ideas,  and  deals  with  ab- 
stractions, generalizations,  concepts,  judgments,  reasons."  No  pro- 
cess of  development  can  ever  make  a  reasoning  animal  out  of  a  bmte. 
The  difference  is  in  kind. 

SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

Beview. — You  may  now  climb  the  Psychological  Tree  (p.  56) 
and  ascend  the  Psychological  Pyramid  (p.  152)  till  you  reach  reason. 
Define  each  faculty  and  its  product,  and  give  its  office.  In  all  cases 
give  examples.  What  relations  do  you  discern  when  you  conceive  f 
when  you  judge  ¥  when  you  reason  I  Point  out  the  distinction  be- 
tween perceive  and  discern.  Define  faculty ;  perceptive  faculties  ; 
representative  faculties  ;  thought  faculties. 

What  is  meant  by  reason  ?  What  is  reason  sometimes  called  t 
Why?    Analyze  an  act  of  reason.    What  do  you  discover ? 

What  is  the  office  of  a  faculty  ?  of  reason  ?  How  do  we  find 
out  particular  truths  ?  General  truths  ?  How  do  we  verify  conclu- 
sions I    Illustrate. 

Give  the  first  characteristic  of  reason ;  the  second ;  the  third. 
What  do  you  mean  by  belief!  Show  the  distinctions  between  reason 
and  conception  ;  reason  and  judgment. 

State  the  author's  definition  of  reason ;  yours  ;  Wundt's.  De- 
fine reasoning  and  a  reason. 

What  may  we  call  the  products  of  reason  %  What  is  a  syllo- 
gism f  an  enthymeme  I  Give  the  terms  of  a  syllogism.  Give  the 
propositions.     Illustrate. 

Give  the  two  ways  in  which  we  reason.  Define  and  illustrate 
deductive  reasoning  ;  inductive  reasoning.  Explain  verification. 
Give  three  examples  of  each  process.  What  do  you  mean  by  verifi- 
cation by  analysis  f  by  synthesis  f  What  is  belief  f  Name  the  three 
elements  of  belief.    Illustrate. 

How  are  reason  and  belief  related  f  What  is  testimony  f  Give 
distinctions  between  unbelief,  doubt,  degrees  of  belief  and  certainty. 
Show  that  belief  is  an  intellectual  product. 

Tell  about  the  growth  of  reason.  When  does  it  reach  full  ac- 
tivity t  Give  some  of  the  mistakes  of  the  old  education.  What 
branches  seem  to  be  best  for  the  culture  of  reason  f 


194       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Does  the  brute  reason  ?  Give  Bascora's  views.  What  faculties 
has  the  brute  ?  Do  they  account  for  all  mental  phenomena  of  brute- 
life? 

Letter. — You  may  now  tell  your  friend  about  the  crowning  in- 
tellectual power.  Ask  him  to  take  plenty  of  time  here.  Every- 
thing must  stand  out  in  sunlight  clearness. 

Theories. — The  antiquated  theories  of  idealism,  realism,  and 
nominalism,  which  engaged  thinkers  of  past  centuries,  are  omitted. 
They  might  confuse  and  could  not  benefit  the  young  psychologist. 

Analysis  of  Chapter  XVI. 

L  Acts  of  Reason  analyzed. 

Deduction.  Induction. 

II.  Office  of  Reason. 

Discerning  particulars.  Verifying  conclusions. 

Discerning  generals. 

III.  Characteristics  of  Reason. 

Power  to  infer.  Power  to  believe. 

Power  to  systematize. 

lY.  Reason  defined. 

Author's  definition.  Various  definitions. 

Original  definition. 

V.  Terms  of  a  Syllogism. 

Major.  Middle.  Minor. 

VI.  Propositions  of  a  Syllogism. 

Major  premise.  Conclusion. 

Minor  premise. 

VII.  Reasoning  Processes. 

Induction.       Deduction.       Verification. 

VIII.  Reason  and  Belief. 

Belief  defined.  Degrees  of  belief. 

Disbelief.  Certainty. 

Doubt.  Blunders. 

IX.  Growth  and  Education  of  Reason. 

X.  Comparative  Psychology. 


THOUGHT-KNOWING— GENERAL  VIEW. 


195 


CHAPTEK  XYII. 

THOUGHT-KNOWmG GENERAL   VIEW. 

Eeason  crowns  Cognition, — At  the  base  of  the  psy- 
chological pyramid  you  lind  perceptive  knowing.  All 
cognition  is  founded  on  the  rock  of  immediate  knowl- 
edge. Eepresentative  knowii^g  builds  on  perceptive 
knowing.  Without  representation  there  could  be  no 
comparison,  and  thought  would  be  impossible.  Crown- 
ing the  pyramid  of  the  intellectual  faculties  and  their 
products,  you  find  reason.  Here,  presented  in  one 
view,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  in  the  order  of  their  de- 
pendence, are  the  nine  cognitive  powers : 

INTELLECT. 


g 


o 


o 


JUDGMENT. 


CONCEPTION. 


IMAGINATION. 


NOUMENAL-PERCEPTIOH. 


CONSCIOUSNESS. 


JUDGMENTS. 


PHANTASMS. 


\ 

c 


NOUMENAL-PERCEPTS. 


\ 


CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTS. 


SENSE-PERCEPTION. 


SENSE-PERCEPTS. 


196       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY   AND   EDUCATION. 

The  Nine  Intellectual  Faculties. — The  soul  is  the  conscious  self 
that  knows,  feels,  and  wills.  The  capabilities  of  the  soul  to  exert 
acts  of  knowing  different  in  kind  are  termed  the  intellectual  facul- 
ties. A  faculty  is  not  an  organ  or  an  entity ;  nor  is  a  faculty  a 
myth.  This  bar  of  magnetic  iron  has  not  organs,  but  bound  up  in 
it  are  energies  called  magnetism,  gravity,  cohesion.  The  soul  is  an 
entity  endowed  with  capabilities  to  know,  to  feel,  and  to  will.  A 
faculty  is  a  soul-energy  to  do  acts  distinguishable  in  kind  from  other 
acts.  You  reproduce  and  recognize  a  past  experience ;  the  act  is 
distinguishable  in  kind  from  all  other  kinds  of  mental  acts ;  mem- 
ory is  a  faculty ;  the  soul  is  endowed  with  a  reproductive  energy. 

1.  The  intellectual  faculties  are  the  powers  of  the  soul  to  perform 
different  kinds  of  acts  of  k7iowing.  Discrimination  and  assimilation 
are  processes  involved  in  some  degree  in  all  knowing ;  but  these  are 
not  faculties.  Like  the  physical  forces,  faculties  are  distinct  ener- 
gies. A  compound  element  is  not  a  greater  absurdity  than  a  com- 
pound faculty.  We  have  as  many  intellectual  powers  as  we  have 
distinct  knowing  energies,  and  no  more. 

2.  Groups  of  intellectual  faculties.  The  number  three  is  not 
a  sacred  number  in  science,  save  so  far  as  truth  is  sacred.  Clas- 
sification is  scientific  when  it  accords  with  reality.  "  How  do  we 
gain  knowledge  f  How  do  we  keep  it  ?  What  can  we  do  with  it  ?  " 
These  questions  indicate  the  natural  grouping  of  the  cognitive  pow- 
ers. Each  group  answers  to  one  of  these  questions.  Perception  in- 
cludes our  three  intuitive  powers ;  representation  includes  our  three 
representative  powers ;  and  elaboration  includes  our  three  thought- 
powers.  This  classification  is  considered  true  to  reality,  and  is  cer- 
tainly exhaustive.  No  better  classification  seems  possible  for  psy- 
chological, educational,  or  literary  purposes. 

3.  A  uniform  nomenclature  needed.  Much  of  the  confusion  in 
the  realms  of  mental  science  arises  from  an  imperfect  and  ambigu- 
ous nomenclature.  But  psychologists  and  educators  are  rapidly 
approaching  uniformity.  The  pyramid  represents  the  substantial 
agreement  of  our  latest  and  best  authors. 

Thinking  is  discerning  Relations. — Thought-knowl- 
edge is  a  knowledge  of  relations.  All  knowing  is  im- 
mediate, representative,  or  mediate.  Because  w^e  discern 
the  unknown  through  the  known,  thought-know^ing  is 


THOUGHT-KNOWING— GENERAL  VIEW.  197 

called  mediate  knowing.  Because  we  think  crude  per- 
cepts into  polished  concepts  and  judgments  and  reasons, 
we  call  thought-knowing  elahorative  knowing.  Why  is 
thought-knowing  called  reflective  knowing?  compara- 
tive knowing  ?  logical  knowing  'i 

^  Thought-Knowing. 

Mediate-Knowing. 

„  Comparative-Knowing. 

Names. <    t..,  u      4.-      t^        • 

j    Llaborative-Knowing. 

Reflective-Knowing. 
(^  Logical-Knowing. 
Our  thinking  faculties  are  our  soul-energies  to  discern  relations. 
"  The  faculties  of  elaboration  are  variously  denominated  thus :  The 
elahorative  or  discursive  faculties,  since  they  are  employed  in  work- 
ing up  into  higher  forms  the  materials  supplied  by  acquisition  and 
reproduction ;  the  logical  faculties,  since  they  are  the  faculties  em- 
ployed in  logical  processes ;  the  comparative  faculties,  since  compari- 
son enters  as  an  essential  element  into  all  their  processes ;  the  facul- 
ties of  relations,  since  they  deal  with  relations ;  tlie  thought  faculties^ 
since  their  acts  are  styled  thought;  the  rational  faculties,  under- 
standing, or  intelligence,  since  they  are  the  faculties  which  character- 
ize man  as  rational,  and  thus  distinguish  him  from  inferior  beings."  * 

The  Thinking  Powers. 

The  Comparative  Powers. 

The  Elaborative  Faculties. 

The  Reflective  Faculties. 

The  Logical  Faculties. 

The  Rational  Faculties. 

The  Understanding  (indefinite). 
Understanding  is  used  in  various  senses,  and  hence  is  objection- 
able.    The  other  names  are  expressive  and  definite,  and  may  be 
used  interchangeably. 

Thinking  is  based  on  Comparison. — Thinking  is  dis- 
cerning relations  between  things.  We  perceive  things 
and  discern  relations.     The  things  perceived  and  tho 

♦  Schuyler. 


Names. < 


198       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

relations  discerned  are  objective  realities,  but  concepts, 
judgments,  and  reasons  are  products  of  the  mind. 

1.  Conception  is  the  power  to  think  things  into  classes. 
"When  we  compare  objects,  we  discern  resemblances  and 
form  groups  of  resembling  things.  We  gain  general 
notions. 

2.  Judgment  is  the  power  to  think  notions  into 
propositions.  When  we  compare  two  notions  we  dis- 
cern and  predicate  agreement  or  disagreement.  We 
gain  truths. 

3.  Reason  is  the  power  to  think  propositions  into 
arguments.  When  we  compare  propositions,  we  dis- 
cern conclusions  or  causal  relations.  Through  inter- 
locked judgments  self,  as  reason,  discerns  causal  rela- 
tions, and  thus  builds  science.     We  gain  conclusions. 

r  Conception. 
The  Thinking  Faculties—  -<  Judgment. 

\  Reason. 
"  We  distinguish  Three  Stages  of  Thinking.  First  of  all,  there  is 
the  formation  of  general  notions  or  concepts.  This  is  an  act  of  con- 
ception. Next  to  this  comes  the  combining  of  two  concepts  in  the 
form  of  a  statement  or  proposition,  as  when  we  say,  *  Material  bodies 
have  weight.'  This  is  an  act  of  judgment.  Lastly,  we  have  the 
operation  by  which  the  mind  passes  from  certain  judgments  to  cer- 
tain other  judgments,  as  when  from  the  assertions,  *  Material  sub- 
stances have  weight,' '  Gases  are  material  substances,'  we  proceed  to 
the  further  assertion,  '  Gases  have  weight.'  This  is  an  act  of  reason. 
These  distinctions  have  been  fixed  by  logicians,  and  not  by  psychol- 
ogists. Nevertheless,  since  they  roughly  mark  off  the  more  simple 
and  the  more  complex  modes  of  thinking  and  products  of  thought, 
it  is  convenient  to  the  psychologist  to  adopt  the  distinctions."  * 

Sel^  as  Conception,  thinks  Many  Individuals  into  One 
Class. — The  product  is  called  a  general  notion  because 

•  Sully. 


THOUGHT-KNOWING— GENERAL   VIEW.  199 

it  is  general  to  each  individual  of  the  class.  Why  are 
concepts  called  class-notions  and  group-notions?  An 
idea  may  be  a  percept  or  a  concept.  Notion  has  been 
and  is  still  used  as  synonymous  with  idea,  but  the  ten- 
dency now  is  to  use  notion  in  the  sense  of  concept. 


Products  of  Conception < 


Concepts. 

General  Notions. 

Class-Notions. 

Group-Notions. 
^  Notions. 

"  To  classify  is  no  secret  of  science,  no  process  reserved  for  the 
select  few  who  are  initiated  into  a  magic  art,  but  it  is  as  universal 
and  necessary  as  the  act  of  thinking.  The  classifications  of  common 
life  may  be  as  rational  and  as  useful  for  the  ends  of  common  life  as 
are  those  of  science  for  its  special  objects."  * 

"  In  our  observation  of  the  relation  of  resemblance,  as  of  every 
other,  we  proceed  through  our  knowledge,  previous  or  present,  of 
objects.  From  the  knowledge  we  have  of  things  we  discern  points 
in  which  they  are  alike.  This  enables  us  to  put  them  into  a  class, 
to  which  we  may  attach  a  name.  That  class  must  include  all  the 
objects  possessing  the  common  attributes  fixed  on.  The  faculty  to 
discern  relations  of  resemblance  is  our  power  to  manufacture  our 
general  notions  or  concepts."  f 

Belt  as  Judgment,  discerns  Trnth-Eelations.  — The 
product  of  judging  is  called  a  judgment,  because  it  is 
a  decision  of  the  mind.  As  it  sets  forth  the  agreement 
or  disagreement  of  notions,  it  is  called  a  proposition. 
We  discern  the  agreement  or  disagreement  of  ideas — 
we  judge.  We  express  the  agreement  or  disagreement 
— we  form  judgments.  A  proposition  or  sentence  asserts 
the  agreement  or  disagreement  of  notions.  When  the 
assertion  corresponds  with  reality,  the  judgment  is  true. 
All  judgments  are  either  true  or  false. 

•  Porter.  f  McCosh. 


200       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

f  Judgments. 
Products  of  Judgment —  -<  Propositions. 
'  Sentences. 

Sel^  as  Eeasoii)  discerns  Conclusions  through,  the  Me- 
dium of  Premises. — Because  we  think  propositions  to- 
gether and  thus  discern  conclusions,  reasons  are  called 
syllogisms.  Because  we  establish  truth  by  proofs,  rea- 
sons are  called  arguments  and  formal  proofs. 

r  Reasons. 

Products  of  Eeason- J    Arguments. 
Syllogisms. 
L  Formal  Proofs. 

How  simple  and  yet  how  wonderful  are  these 
powers !  Man  thinks — is  rational.  Man  thinks — gains 
a  mastery  over  the  material  world.  Man  thinks — tries 
to  solve  the  problem  of  the  universe.  As  the  digestive 
organs  elaborate  food  into  bones,  muscles,  and  nerves, 
so  the  thinking  faculties  elaborate  our  acquisitions  into 
concepts,  judgments,  and  reasons. 

Forms  of  Thinking  and  Faculties  of  Thought. — "  There  are  three 
distinct  forms  of  thinking,  and  consequently  three  distinct  faculties 
of  thought,  which  may  be  defined  as  follows : 

"  Conception  is  the  faculty  of  the  mind  by  which  we  form  our 
general  abstract  notions,  or  concepts. 

"  Judgment  is  the  faculty  of  the  mind  by  which  we  know  the 
relation  between  two  objects  of  knowledge. 

"  Reason  is  the  faculty  of  the  mind  by  which  we  gain  new  truth 
from  truth  already  known."  * 

Original  and  Manufactured  Knowledge. — All  our  knowledge  is 
original  or  manufactured.  Original  knowledge  has  three  sources : 
Sense-intuition,  conscious-intuition,  and  noumenal-intuition.  Sense- 
intuition  is  our  power  to  gain  original  knowledge  of  the  external 
world.    Conscious-intuition  is  our  capability  to  gain  original  knowl- 

*  Dunton. 


THOUGHT-KNOWING— GENERAL  VIEW.  201 

edge  of  the  mental  world.  Noumenal-intuition  is  our  power  to  gain 
necessary  ideas.  Through  these  three  sources  we  gain  all  the  ele- 
ments of  knowledge.  • 

The  soul,  out  of  original  elements,  manufactures  higher  forms 
of  knowledge.  We  so  combine  these  elements  as  to  produce  things 
unheard  of  before  in  earth  or  heaven ;  this  is  the  work  of  self,  as 
imagination.  We  discern  class-relations  and  group  resembling 
things  into  classes, and  thus  gain  general  notions;  this  is  the  work 
of  self,  as  conception.  We  discern  truth-relations  and  think  notions 
into  propositions ;  this  is  the  work  of  self,  as  judgment.  We  discern 
cause-relations  and  reach  conclusions  through  judgments;  this  is 
the  work  of  self,  as  reason. 

Self,  as  memory,  reproduces,  unchanged,  all  forms  of  knowl- 
edge. Memories  are  merely  reproductions  of  our  acquisitions,  both 
original  and  manufactured. 

Last  Words  of  Physiological  Psychology.  —  "  Physiological  Psy- 
chology investigates  the  phenomena  of  human  consciousness  from 
the  physiological  point  of  view.  It  finds  a  marvelous  material 
mechanism  called  the  nervous  system,  and  it  describes  the  effects  of 
external  and  internal  stimuli  upon  molecular  nerve-substance.  It  is 
pre-eminently  experimental,  then  speculative,  but  never  demonstra- 
tive. Whatever  changes  take  place  in  the  nerve-substance,  in  the 
process  of  starting  and  communicating  nerve-commotion,  are  invis- 
ible and  impalpable.  Connections  between  different  cerebral  areas 
and  their  functions  are  so  complex  and  subtile  that  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  physiological  psychology  will  ever  succeed  in  completely 
disentangling  them.  We  know  certain  of  the  physical  conditions 
and  concomitants  of  soul  action,  but  mental  phenomena  can  not  be 
conceived  of  as  identical  with  the  molecular  motion  of  the  nervous 
mass ;  nor  can  the  phenomena  of  consciousness  be  conceived  of  as 
the  product  of  the  brain.  The  conclusion  is  a  logical  as  well  as  a 
psychological  necessity :  The  subject  of  all  states  of  consciousness  is 
a  real  unit-being  called  mind,  which  is  of  non-material  nature,  and 
acts  and  develops  according  to  laws  of  its  own,  but  is  specially  cor- 
related with  certain  material  molecules  and  masses,  forming  the  sub- 
stance of  the  brain. 

Physical  Basis  of  Thought. — "  A  scientific  physiology  of  the  cere- 
bral hemispheres  does  not  exist,  nor  is  it  at  the  present  a  matter  for 
even  hofHjful  anticipation.  In  studying  the  higher  mental  phenom- 
=:a,  physiological  psychology  is  obliged  almost  wholly  to  adopt  the 


202   ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

methods  of  the  old  psychology  and  accept  the  facts  of  consciousness. 
We  decline  to  discuss  the  physical  basis  of  the  logical  faculties,  as 
there  is  absolutely  n«  scientific  ground  on  which  to  base  such  a  dis- 
cussion. The  inability  of  psychological  science  to  conceive  of  any 
physical  process  which  can  be  correlated  with  the  acts  of  conceiv- 
ing, judging,  and  reasoning,  is  complete.  "We  are  forced  to  make 
the  same  humiliating  admission  as  to  memory  and  imagination  and 
choice  and  intuition  and  conscience."* 

Reason  and  Unity.  —  Infinite  Reason  planned  the  universe. 
Everything,  from  the  atom  to  a  system  of  worlds,  is  related  by  de- 
pendencies. Cause  and  effect,  means  and  ends,  antecedents  and  con- 
sequents, unite  all  into  one  unity.  Endowed  with  Reason,  we  can 
think  the  thoughts  of  God  after  him. 

Reason,  through  interlocked  Judgments,  discerns  cause  rela- 
tions. In  its  work.  Reason  lays  under  contribution  all  our  other 
capabilities.  All  are  its  servants,  subject  to  its  supervision.  We 
fashion  our  percepts — Reason  is  there ;  we  remember  and  imagine — 
Reason  is  there  ;  we  form  judgments — Reason  is  there ;  we  feel  emo- 
tions of  truth  and  beauty  and  duty — Reason  is  there ;  we  choose  and 
act — behold.  Reason  is  there. 

Not  to  educate  Reason  is  to  leave  man  to  grope  in  a  sea  of  hope- 
less mystery.  To  the  unthinking,  the  universe  is  a  maze  without 
a  plan,  and  life  is  not  worth  living.  As  reason  grows,  all  things  be- 
gin to  assume  proportion  and  harmony.  Substances,  forces,  laws, 
conditions,  dependencies ;  cause,  space,  duration ;  rational  beings, 
brutes,  plants,  worlds ;  all  things  fall  into  rhythm  and  make  for  us 
the  music  of  the  spheres. 

*  Ladd,  "  Physiological  Psychology." 


PART   V. 

THE  FEELINGS. 


CHAPTER  XVIII.— The  Instincts. 

XIX. — The  Physical  Feelings. — The  Appetites. 
XX. — The  Emotions. — Egoistic  Emotions. 
XXI.— The  Emotions.— Altruistic  Emotions. 
XXII. — The  Emotions. — Truth  Emotions. 
XXIII. — The  Emotions. — ^Esthetic  Emotions. 
XXIV.— The  Emotions.— Ethical  Emotions. 
XXV.— The  Emotions.^Gteneeal  View. 


16 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PYRAMID. 


d       THE  WILL 
y   /    POWERS. 


THE 
EMOTIONS. 


THE  COSMIC  EMOTIONS. 

THE  ALTRUISTIC  EMOTIONS, 

THE  EGOISTIC  EMOTIONS. 


THE 
PHYSICAL 
FEELINGS. 


THE  SPECIAL  SENSES. 

THE  GENERAL  SENSES. 

THE  APPETITES. 


THE 
INSTINCTS. 


HUMAN  INSTINCTS. 

COMMON  INSTINCTS. 

STRICTLY  BRUTE  INSTINCTS. 


THE 
THINKING 
POWERS. 


REASON. 

JUDGMENT. 

CONCEPTION. 


REASONS. 

IJUDGMENTS.1 

CONCEPTS. 


THE 

/REPRESENT-i 
ATIVE 

POWERS. 


IMAGINATION. 
PHANTASY. 
MEMORY. 


IDEALS. 


■0 

O 

1PHANTASMS.1  c 
O 
MEMORIES, 


THE 

f  PERCEPTIVE/ 

POWERS. 


NOUMENAL-PERCEPTION. 

CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION. 

SENSE-PERCEPTION. 


NOUMENAL- 
PERCEPTS. 

CONSCIOUS^ 
PERCEPTS. 

SENSE- 
PERCEPTS. 


FIFTH   PAKT. 

THE  FEELINGS. 


Feelings  are  agitations  and  irwpulses  of  the  soul. 
I  suffer  hunger,  I  long  for  wisdom,  I  sympathize  with 
my  bereaved  friend,  I  feel  impulses  to  do  what  I  be- 
lieve to  be  right.  These  agitations  and  impulses  are 
called  feelings,  or  sensibilities,  or  susceptibilities. 

(  The  Feelings. 
Karnes.  •<  The  Sensibilities. 

(.  The  Susceptibilities. 

A  sensibility  is  a  capability  for  a  distinct  hind  of 
feeling.  The  power  of  thirst  is  a  feeling  or  sensibility. 
The  agitation  and  impulse  of  thirstiness  is  the  activity 
of  the  capability  to  feel  thirst.  "We  are  endowed  with 
powers  to  feel,  and  we  exert  these  powers,  or  we  feel. 
A  feeling  implies  a  power  to  feel.  We  have  as  many 
sensibilities  as  we  have  distinct  kinds  of  feeling.  A 
feeling  is  nsuall}^  agreeable  or  disagreeable;  this  gen- 
eral characterietic  of  the  feelings  will  enable  you  to  dis- 
tinguish feeling  from  knowing  and  willing. 

We  enjoy  and  suffer.  We  enjoy  sweet  music,  con- 
genial society^  success ;  but  we  suffer  physical  pain, 
want,  disappointment.  We  discern  truth,  feel  pleasure, 
and  choose  safety.    We  know,  feel,  and  will. 


206       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


■■{ 


The  Instincts. 
Classes  of  Feelings.  -^  The  Physical  Feelings. 
The  Emotions. 


Feeling  is  mental  agitation  and  irrvpulse.  Some 
feelings  are  blind  but  guiding  impulses — these  we  call 
instincts.  Some  feelings  are  occasioned  by  organic  bod- 
ily excitations — these  we  name  physical  feelings.  Some 
feelings  are  occasioned  by  ideas — these  we  term  emo- 
tions. This  easy  classification  of  the  feelings  is  thought 
to  be  exhaustive  as  well  as  convenient. 


CHAPTEE  XYin. 

THE  INSTINCTS. 

By  these  we  mean  guiding  impulses.  All  feelings 
are  blind ;  many  feelings  move  to  action  ;  but  instincts 
are  the  only  feelings  which  guide.  The  guiding  im- 
pulses or  instincts  are  clearly  a  distinct  class  of  feelings. 
Where  intelligence  can  not  act,  instinct  moves  the  ani- 
mal to  blindly  conform  to  law.  Creative  Wisdom  has 
implanted  in  the  animal  marvelous  energies  to  adapt 
means  to  ends  without  knowing  why.  Instinct  is  adap- 
tative  or  regulative  impulse ;  it  is  a  blind  tendency  to 
wise  ends.  {The  discussion  of  Instinct  [see  Chapter 
II,  p.  15]  seems  to  he  as  full  as  is  desirable  in  an  ele- 
mentary worh.  A  careful  examination  of  the  chapter 
orb  Instinct  will  aid  the  student  to  master  the  following 
chapters.) 


THE  PHYSICAL  FEELINGS— THE  APPETITES.         207 

CHAPTEE  XIX. 

THE  PHYSICAL   FEELINGS ^THE   APPETITES. 

By  the  physical  feelings  we  mean  our  capabilities 
to  feel  organic  affections  of  the  'body.  The  feelings 
occasioned  bj  external  excitants  affecting  the  sensorium 
are  called  special  sensations ;  the  feelings  occasioned  by 
the  affections  of  the  organs  and  tissues  of  the  body  are 
called  general  sensations ;  but  the  feelings  occasioned 
by  cravings  for  bodily  needs  are  termed  appetites.  Our 
capabilities  to  feel  in  these  ways  are  termed 

i  The  Special  Sensations. 
Tlie  Physical  Feelings,  -j  The  General  Sensations. 
V.  The  Appetites. 

All  feeHng  is  mental,  but  mental  agitations  and  im- 
pulses originating  in  organic  affections  of  the  body  may 
appropriately  be  termed  physical  feelings. 

Sensation.  By  this  is  meant  the  conscious  affection  of  the  senso- 
rium. Agitations  occasioned  by  affections  of  the  special  sensor  ap- 
paratuses, as  in  seeing,  hearing,  smelling,  tasting,  touching,  are  termed 
special  sensations.  Agitations  occasioned  by  affections  of  the  gen- 
eral sensor  apparatuses  are  called  general  sensations ;  as,  sensations 
of  hunger,  thirst,  weariness.  {See  Chapters  IV,  F,  and  VI.  Sen- 
sation is  there  examined  at  length.  You  are  recommended  to  review 
these  chapters  before  advancing.) 

Mechanism  of  Sensation. — The  nervous  mechanism 
includes  the  end  organs,  the  sensor-nerves,  and  the  cen- 
tral organs.  It  is  the  office  of  the  end  organs  to  trans- 
mute the  physical  molecular  processes  into  physiological 
processes.   The  molecular-commotion  moves  through  the 


208       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY   AND  EDUCATION. 

nerves  to  the  central  organs.  The  molecules  of  the  cen- 
tj  al  organs  are  capable  of  assuming  to  each  other  incon- 
ceivably varied  relations  in  transmuting  and  redistrib- 
uting nerve-commotion.  Such  is  the  vital  mechanism 
of  sensation.  The  self-conscious  soul  feels  the  excita- 
tions of  this  mechanism,  and  these  feelings  are  called 
sensations.  Self  as  sense-perception  out  of  his  sensa- 
tions forms  ideas  called  sense-percepts.  "  But  the  con- 
nections between  the  different  cerebral  areas  and  their 
functions  are  so  complex  and  subtile  that  physiological 
science  will  need  a  long  time  to  disentangle  them ;  it 
may  be  doubted  whether  it  will  ever  succeed  in  doing 
this  completely." 

THE   APPETITES. 

By  these  we  mean  the  cravings  for  hodily  wants. 
Our  acts  of  cognition  are  more  or  less  definite,  and  we 
are  able  to  examine  them  with  considerable  certainty. 
We  shall  find  it  much  more  difficult  to  scrutinize  our 
feelings  ;  but  patient,  penetrating  eifort  will  enable  us 
to  conquer  this  new  world. 

Analysis  of  Acts  of  Appetite. — You  have  not  taken 
food  for  twelve  hours.  The  dead  tissues  have  been  re- 
moved during  sleep.  The  aching  void  within  is  the 
cry  of  hunger,  or  the  appetite  for  food.  The  soul  feels 
vhe  bodily  cry  of  hunger,  and  also  feels  the  desire  to 
satisfy  the  appetite.  These  feelings  occasion  the  im- 
pulse to  seek  and  take  food.  A  limited  quantity  of 
food  temporarily  satisfies  hunger,  but  when  the  system 
requires  more  nutriment,  the  craving  begins  again. 
You  may  analyze  thirst,  and  tell  what  you  discover. 
Does  the  soul  feel  the  cry  of  thirst  ? 


THE  PHYSICAL  FEELINGS— THE  APPETITES.         209 

Office  of  the  Appetites. — Self,  as  appetite,  feels  the 
cries  of  the  body  for  bodily  wants ;  these  cries  give  rise 
to  desires  for  means  to  satisfy  the  wants.  When  our 
bodies  need  rest,  we  desire  sleep  to  satisfy  the  cry  of 
sleepiness.  Craving  for  objects  to  gratify  the  organic 
needs  of  the  body  is  the  office  of  appetite.  Each  appe- 
tite has  its  special  office.  What  is  the  office  of  hunger  ? 
of  thirst  ?  of  restiveness  ?  of  respiration  ? 

Characteristics  of  an  Appetite. — How  do  you  distin- 
guish an  appetite  from  other  feelings  ?  From  your  anal- 
ysis you  discover  the  three  pecuharities  of  an  appetite : 

1.  An  appetite  is  a  craving  occasioned  hy  an  or- 
ganic need  of  the  body.  Give  the  physiological  expla- 
nation, and  show  that  this  is  true  of  hunger,  thirst, 
sleepiness. 

2.  An  appetite  is  intermittent  When  satisfied, 
the  craving  ceases  for  a  time,  but  returns.  Explain 
physiologically,  and  show  that  respiration,  sleepiness, 
hunger,  are  intermittent. 

S.  An  appetite  has  physical  limits.  The  amount 
that  can  be  taken  of  food,  or  of  drink,  or  of  air,  or  of 
sleep,  or  of  exercise,  is  limited.  Explain  physiologically. 
All  feelings  having  these  characteristics  may  be  safely 
classed  as  appetites. 

The  Appetites. — The  following  seem  to  be  the  only 
feelings  that  can  be  classed  as  appetites.  Each  of  these 
feelings  has  the  three  characteristics  of  an  appetite : 


Appetitet.— 


r  Hunger,  the  appetite  for  food. 

Thirst,  the  appetite  for  drink. 

Sleepiness,  the  appetite  for  sleep, 
j   Restiveness,  the  appetite  for  exercise  or  rest. 

Sexuality,  the  appetite  for  sex. 
^  Respiration,  the  appetite  for  air. 


210       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY   AND  EDUCATION. 

Appetite  Defined. — It  is  difficult  to  define  a  feeling, 
though  we  are  just  as  conscious  of  our  feelings  as  of  our 
knowings.  We  are  not  in  doubt  about  what  the  feeling 
is,  but  we  find  it  hard  to  tell. 

1.  The  ajpjpetites  are  cravings  for  the  gratification 
of  bodily  wants.  Because  the  organic  cries  of  the  body 
give  rise  to  mental  cravings,  we  call  these  feelings 
physical  feelings.  These  cravings  have  a  physical 
origin  and  a  physical  object. 

2.  Original  definition.  Yon  may  write  a  definition 
in  your  own  language.  You  must  not  confound  de- 
sires occasioned  by  these  cravings  nor  sensations  accom- 
panying the  gratification  of  the  appetite  with  the  crav- 
ing of  an  appetite. 

3.  Various  Definitions. — 1.  Gregory:  Appetites  are  cravings 
having  for  their  object  the  well-being  of  the  body.  2.  Peabody  : 
Appetites  are  cravings  of  the  body  designed  to  secure  the  continued 
life  of  the  individual  and  the  race.  3.  McCosh  :  Appetites  are  men- 
tal cravings  for  objects  to  gratify  bodily  needs.  4.  Stewart  :  Ap- 
petites are  cravings  which  take  their  rise  from  the  body,  and  are  de- 
signed for  the  preservation  of  the  individual  and  the  continuation  of 
the  species. 

Appetency  is  craving  for  specific  gratification,  and  is  the  basis 
of  feeling.  You  crave  pears — you  say  you  are  very  fond  of  pears. 
This  fondness  or  appetency  gives  rise  to  the  craving.  So  with  all 
appetites. 

Natural  and  Modified  Appetites. — Each  appetite  is  an 
endowment,  but  an  appetite  may  be  modified  by  ex- 
perience. 

1.  Natural  appetites  are  unperverted  appetites. 
The  appetites  for  suitable  food  and  drink,  for  pure  air, 
for  necessary  sleep,  are  natural  appetites. 

2.  Modified  appetites  are  caUed  a/rtifi^ial  appetites. 


THE  PHYSICAL  FEELINGS— THE  APPETITES.         211 

or  perverted  appetites,  or  unnatural  appetites.  The  ap- 
petite for  opium  is  an  acquired  appetite — i.  e.,  the 
natural  appetite  for  food  is  so  modified  by  experience 
as  to  create  a  craving  for  opium.  The  alcoholic  and 
tobacco  appetites  are  perverted  appetites. 

Unnatural  appetites  are  natural  appetites  perverted.  They  are 
due  to  diseased  conditions  of  the  organism.  Their  longings  become 
agonies.    They  enslave  and  tend  to  destroy  their  victims. 

Guides  of  the  Appetites. — Reflex  action,  instinct,  and 
intelligence,  each  play  a  part  in  guiding  to  the  lawful 
gratifications  of  the  appetites. 

1.  Reflex  action  is  involved  in  the  organic  cries  of 
want  and  in  the  satisfied  feeling  which  follows  the  grati- 
fication of  the  appetite.  As  to  the  gratification  of  the 
appetites,  the  action  of  our  bodies  is  very  machine-like. 
This  is  well ;  for,  if  left  to  reason,  we  should  starve,  or 
destroy  our  lives  by  overeating. 

2.  Instinct  covers  much  of  the  ground,  guiding?  each 
brute  to  the  proper  gratification  of  its  appetites.  How  ? 
We  do  not  know.     This  knowledge  is  too  high  for  us. 

3.  Intelligence  guides  rational  heings.  Man  finds 
out  the  law  and  obeys  it.  In  so  far  as  animals  are  in- 
telligent, intelligence  as  well  as  instinct  guides  them  in 
satisfying  their  appetites. 

Lawful  Gratification  of  the  Appetites. — Like  all  other 
energies,  the  appetites  have  their  laws.  A  rational  be- 
ing learns  and  obeys  these  laws,  but  the  brute  complies 
instinctively. 

1.  Lawful  gratification  gives  pleasure.  In  this  the 
appetites  are  like  all  other  endowments.  The  Father, 
everywhere,  has  made  happiness  to  result  from  law 
obeyed. 


212       ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY  AND   EDUCATION. 

2.  Lawful  gratification  is  God- approved^  and  works 
good.  The  divine  approval  is  manifested  in  connecting 
pleasure  with  the  lawful  gratification  of  appetite. 
The  body  is  the  organism  in  connection  with  which  the 
mind  works.  That  this  organism  may  be  kept  in  the 
best  possible  condition,  it  is  necessary  that  the  appetites 
be  lawfully  gratified.  Asceticism  and  epicureanism  are 
fundamental  errors. 

Unlawful  Gratification  of  the  Appetites. — All  viola- 
tions of  law  bring  misery.  Violations  of  pliysical  laws 
produce  physical  misery. 

1.  Unlawful  gratification  gives  pain.  Sooner  or 
later  violations  of  the  laws  of  appetite  bring  suffering. 
The  trembling  debauchee  and  the  wretched  dyspeptic 
are  extreme  cases. 

2.  Unlawful  gratification  is  disapproved.  The 
wretchedness  following  the  unlawful  gratification  of  the 
appetites  marks  the  divine  disapproval. 

3.  Unlawful  gratification  works  evil.  The  alco- 
holic appetite  causes  much  of  the  crime,  insanity,  and 
pauperism  that  curse  society.  All  unlawful  gratification 
of  the  appetites  tends  to  brutalize  man  and  destroy 
society. 

Temperance. — This  means  self-control.  While  edu- 
cating children,  parents  and  teachers  train  them  to  the 
habit  of  controlling  their  appetites.  Thus  the  appetites 
are  made  faithful  servants.  This  is  fundamental  in 
education.  Intemperance  is  the  want  of  self-control. 
The  child,  whether  five  or  fifty  years  of  age,  gives 
loose  rein  to  the  appetites,  and  sinks  the  man  in  the 
animal. 


THE  PHYSICAL  FEELINGS— THE  APPETITES.         213 


8UQ  GESTIVE  STUD  Y-HINTS. 

Beview. — Begin  with  sense-perception,  ascend  the  Psychological 
Pyramid  (p.  204)  and  the  Psychological  Tree  (p.  56)  to  the  physical 
feelings.  Define  and  give  oflBce,  characteristics,  and  products  of 
each  of  the  intellectual  faculties.  Give  two  distinctions  between 
knowing  and  feeling.  Why  are  the  feelings  called  sensibilities! 
susceptibilities?  What  is  feeling?  Name  the  three  classes  into 
which  all  the  feelings  are  divided.  Tell  what  you  know  about  in- 
stinct. 

What  is  meant  by  the  physical  feelings  ?  How  do  instincts  and 
physical  feelings  differ  ?  Name  the  three  classes  of  physical  feelings. 
Define  each.    Why  are  they  called  physical  feelings  ? 

Draw  the  optic  apparatus  and  describe  optic  sensation  and  optic 
perception.  Treat  in  the  same  way  each  of  the  special  senses.  Name 
the  fifteen  general  senses. 

What  do  you  mean  by  the  appetites  I  Analyze  an  act  of  thirst. 
WJiat  do  you  observe  ? 

What  is  the  office  of  the  appetites?  Illustrate  by  sleepiness. 
Give  the  three  characteristics  of  an  appetite.     Illustrate  by  hunger. 

Name  the  appetites  and  test  by  the  three  characteristics  of  an 
appetite.    Is  respiration  an  appetite  ? 

Give  the  author's  definition  of  the  appetites.  Give  your  defini- 
tion. Give  the  definition  of  Gregory;  of  Stewart.  Define  appe- 
tency. Illustrate.  Define  inappetency.  Illustrate.  What  do  you 
mean  by  appetible  ?    By  inappetible  ?     Illustrate  each. 

What  do  you  mean  by  natural  appetites  ?  By  modified  or  arti- 
ficial appetites?  Illustrate.  Is  the  craving  for  opium  a  natural 
appetite?    For  tobacco?    For  alcohol? 

What  are  the  three  guides  in  the  gratification  of  an  appetite  ? 
What  does  reflex  action  do  ?    Instinct  ?    Intelligence  ? 

What  do  you  mean  by  lawful  gratification  of  appetites  ?  By 
unlawful  gratification?  What  follows?  How  are  the  divine  ap- 
proval and  disapproval  manifested  ? 

Letter. — Write  your  friend  a  thoughtful  letter,  explaining  the 
nature  of  the  appetites.  Show  the  relation  between  sell-control  and 
happiness. 


214       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


Analysis  of  Chaptee  XIX. 


I.  The  Physical  Feelings. 

1.  The  Special  Sensations. 
3.  The  Appetites. 

IL   Appetite  Analyzed. 

1.  Hunger. 

III.  Office  of  the  Appetites. 

1.  To  supply  bodily  wants. 

IV.  Characteristics  of  Appetites. 

1.  Craving  originating  in 
bodily  wants. 

V.  The  Appetites. 

1.  Hunger. 
3.  Sleepiness. 
5.  Sexuality. 

VI.   Appetites  Defined. 

1.  Author's  definition. 
3.  Various  definitions. 

VII.   Kinds  of  Appetites. 

1.  Original,  or  natural  appetites. 

2.  Artificial,  or  modified  appetites. 

VIII.   Guides  to  the  Appetites. 

1.  Reflex  action.  2.  Instinct. 

3.  Intelligence. 

IX.  Gratification  of  the  Appetites. 

1.  Lawful.  2.  Unlawful. 

X.  Temperance,  or  Self-control. 

1.  Appetites  made  servants. 

2.  Habits  of  self-control. 

3.  Intemperance — the  animal  dominates  the  man. 


2.  The  General  Sensations. 


2.  Thirst. 

2.  To  perpetuate  the  race. 

2.  Intermittent. 

3.  Physical  limits. 

2.  Thirst. 

4.  Restiveness. 
6.  Respiration. 

2.  Original  definition. 


THE  EMOTIONS— EGOISTIC  EMOTIONS.  215 

CHAPTEK  XX. 

THE   EMOTIONS EGOISTIC   EMOTIONS. 

We  mean  by  the  emotions  our  cwpdbilities  to  feel  in 
view  of  ideas.  Emotions  are  strung  on  ideas  as  pearls 
on  threads  of  gold.  Good  news  awakens  joy,  but  bad 
news  occasions  sorrow.  All  our  higher  feelings  arise  in 
view  of  ideas,  and  are  termed  emotions. 


8.   THE    EMOTIONS. 


2.  THE   PHYSICAL   FEELINGS. 


THE    INSTINCTS. 


Sometimes  we  speak  of  emotions  as  intellectual 
feelings,  because  they  are  occasioned  by  knowing. 
Often  we  call  the  emotions  our  heart-powers,  because 
we  have  learned  to  use  the  term  heart  so  as  to  include 
all  our  higher  feelings. 

iThe  Emotions. 
The  Intellectual  Feelings. 
The  Heart  Powers. 
The  Higher  Feelings. 

An  emotion  is  used  to  designate  both  a  power  to 
feel  and  an  act  of  feeling.  A  capability  for  an  emo- 
tion distinct  in  kind  is  called  an  emotional  power ;  and 
the  feeling  is  the  exertion  of  the  power.  I  love  my 
mother ;  the  capability  to  love  is  an  emotional  power, 
but  loving  is  exerting  this  power.  The  term  emotion 
Hpphes  equally  to  the  capability  and  the  exercise  of  the 


216       ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

capability ;  as,  I  am  endowed  with  the  capability  to  feel 
the  emotion  of  joy  and  I  rejoice,  or  feel  the  emotion 
of  joy. 

Egoistic  or  Self-Emotions. 
Altruistic  Emotions  or  Sympathies. 

!  Truth  Emotions. 
Beauty  Emotions. 
Duty  Emotions. 


Classes  of  Emotions. — 


Some  emotions  refer  to  self,  and  are  called  egoistic 
emotions ;  some  refer  to  others,  and  are  called  altru- 
istic emotions ;  some  are  unlimited,  but  arise  in  view  of 
the  true,  the  beautiful,  and  the  good,  and  are  called  cos- 
mic emotions.  Emotions  limited  to  self  are  self-emo- 
tions ;  emotions  limited  to  others  are  altruistic  emotions ; 
but  unlimited  emotions  are  cosmic  emotions. 

THE    EGOISTIC    EMOTIONS    OR   THE    SELF-EMOTIONS. 

These  are  the  feelings  which  minister  to  self.  You 
desire  pleasure,  long  for  wealth,  and  hope  for  fame ; 
these  feelings  look  to  self,  and  we  apply  to  them  the 
following 

/■  Egoistic  Emotions. 
Names.—  -|  Self-Emotions. 

(.  Personal  Emotions. 

As  egoistic  emotions  minister  to  self,  they  are 
termed  self-emotions.  Since  they  terminate  in  one's 
own  person,  they  are  called  personal  emotions. 

Acts  of  Egoistic  Emotion  Analyzed, — Your  teacher 
pronounces  your  essay  excellent ;  you  feel  satisfaction, 
joy,  pride.  You  fail  to  solve  the  problem ;  you  are 
dissatisfied,  chagrined,  humiliated.  You  feel  exultant 
in  view  of  self  succeeding ;  you  feel  mortified  in  view 


THE  EMOTIONS— EGOISTIC  EMOTIONS.  217 

of  self  failing.  As  these  are  self-emotions,  we  call 
them  egoistic  emotions.  Ideas  pertaining  to  self  occa- 
sion personal  emotions. 

From  a  careful  examination  of  many  of  your  self- 
emotions,  you  can  infer  the 

Office  of  the  Egoistic  Emotions. — These  feelings  look 
to  the  well-being  of  self.  The  instinct  of  self-preserva- 
tion is  deeply  implanted  in  all  animals.  We  shrink 
from  danger  and  welcome  good.  The  office  of  the 
egoistic  emotions  is  self-preservation  and  self-exaltation. 
You  have  also  discovered  from  your  analysis  the 

Characteristics  of  Egoistic  Emotions. — It  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  distinguish  personal  emotions  from  other  men- 
tal acts. 

1.  Egoistic  emotions  are  feelings  occasioned  hy  ideas 
referring  to  self  Some  one  calls  you  a  coward; 
you  feel  indignant.  Some  friend  leaves  you  a  fortune ; 
you  rejoice.  All  emotions  that  terminate  in  self  are 
self-emotions. 

2.  Egoistic  emotions  looJc  to  self^etterment.  The 
personal  emotions  are  not  always  selfish,  but  they  all 
look  to  self ;  hence  they  are  called  egoistic.  All  emo- 
tions which  look  to  self-betterment  are  self-emotions. 
These  emotions  may  sink  into  selfishness  and  egotism. 

Egoistic  Emotions  Defined. — Personal  emotions,  di- 
rectly and  indirectly,  minister  to  self.  They  are  the 
soul-energies  which  move  us  to  act  for  our  own  preser- 
vation and  exaltation. 

1.  Self-emotions  are  the  feelings  which  minister  to 
self 

2.  Original,  Make  a  definition  of  your  own.  H- 
luBtrate. 


218       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND   EDUCATION. 


3.  Various  Definitions. — Brooks  :  The  egoistic  emotions  are 
those  that  center  in  self.  Sully  :  The  egoistic  emotions  are  such  as 
imply  personal  reference.  McCosh  :  Egoistic  emotions  are  the  feel- 
ings called  forth  in  view  of  good  and  evil  as  bearing  on  self. 

Classes  of  Self-Emotions. — By  examining  several  con- 
crete cases,  you  will  be  able  to  classify  egoistic  emotions 
chronologically.  Take  emulation.  You  wish  to  excel 
in  a  spelling-match.  Before  the  contest,  you  exult  in 
anticipated  triumph ;  the  exultation  is  a  prospective 
emotion.  During  the  contest  your  soul  throbs  with  in- 
terest and  courage ;  these  feelings  are  immediate  emo- 
tions. After  the  contest,  you  feel  chagrin  and  disappoint- 
ment in  view  of  your  failure ;  chagrin  is  a  retrospective 
emotion. 

You  prepared  an  essay  and  read  it  before  your  class.  What 
prospective  emotions  did  you  feel  ?  What  immediate  emotions  did 
you  feel  while  writing  and  reading  the  essay  I  What  emotions  do 
you  now  feel  when  you  remember  the  cheers  and  the  criticisms  ? 

r  Hope  or  Fear ;  Expectation  or  Despair ;  Assurance 
_^  .  or  Dread. 

_,       .       -I  Courage  or  Cowardice ;  Modesty  or  Impudence. 

Egoistic    Desires — Desire  for    Knowledge,    "^ 


I 


Immediate 
Emotions. — 


Betrospeotive 
Emotions. — 


Desire 
for  Esteem.     Etc.,  etc. 

Joy  or  Sorrow ;  Gladness  or  Depression  ;  Rapture 
or  Melancholy. 

Content  or  Discontent ;  Good  Humor  or  Bad ; 
Sweet  Disposition  or  Sour. 

Pride  or  Humility ;  Patience  or  Impatience ;  Van- 
ity or  Meekness.    Etc.,  etc. 

Satisfaction  or  Regret;   Complacency  or  Displa- 

cency. 
Self-Gratulation  or  Reproach;  Self -Approbation 

or  Disapprobation. 
Emotions  of  Pleasant  Memories  or  Unpleasant. 

Etc.,  etc. 


THE  EMOTIONS— EGOISTIC  EMOTIONS.  219 

Prospective  Self-Emotions. — The  egoistic  emotions 
occasioned  by  contemplating  the  future  with  reference 
to  self  are  called  prospective  emotions.  Carefully  study 
your  Hst  of  prospective  emotions,  and  state  cases  in- 
volving each.  The  egoistic  desires  are  longings  for  self- 
betterment. 


7.  DESIRE  FOR  PERFECTION. 


6.   DESIRE   FOR    BEAUTY. 


5.    DESIRE   FOR    KNOWLEDGE. 


4.   DESIRE    FOR    ESTEEM. 


8.    DESIRE   FOR    POWER. 


2.    DESIRE   FOR   PROPERTY. 


1.   DESIRE   FOR   LIFE. 


Our  longings  for  self-betterment,  as  given  above, 
are  termed  the  seven  primitive  egoistic  desires.  As  a 
study  of  the  egoistic  desires,  you  may  reconstruct  the 
pyramid,  placing  at  the  base  the  desire  you  think  deep- 
est, and  the  others  in  the  order  of  their  hold  on  human 
nature. 

Happiness  is  not  a  desire,  but  a  result  of  lawfully  gratified  de- 
sires. Not  happiness,  but  food,  is  the  desire  of  a  hungry  man.  Not 
happiness,  but  knowledge,  is  the  desire  of  the  earnest  student.  We 
are  so  constituted  that  the  lawful  gratification  of  our  desires  gives 
us  pleasure.    President  Porter  says : 

"  There  is  in  man  no  separate  desire  of  happiness.  No  man 
ever  desired  happiness  in  the  general  or  the  abstract.  No  one  can 
ever  catch  himself  or  his  neiglibor  thinking  of  happiness  in  the  ab- 
stract, or  desiring  it.  The  satisfaction  which  comes  from  lawfully- 
gratified  desires  is  generalized  as  happiness." 
16 


220       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Immediate  Self-Emotions. — I  am  conscious  of  present 
good  and  evil.  The  self -emotions  occasioned  by  con- 
templating the  present  with  reference  to  self  are  called 
immediate  egoistic  emotions.  You  may  extend  at  your 
leisure  the  list  of  these  emotions,  and  explain  and  illus- 
trate each. 

Retrospective  Self-Emotions. — Memory  brings  back 
the  past — the  good  we  enjoyed  and  the  evil  we  suffered. 
The  emotions  occasioned  by  contemplating  the  past 
with  reference  to  self  are  called  retrospective  egoistic 
emotions.  Kotice  that  the  self -emotions  occur  in  pairs. 
Explain  and  illustrate  each  of  the  retrospective  self- 
emotions  in  the  preceding  diagram. 

Education  of  the  Egoistic  Emotions.* — These  feelings 
dominate  in  childhood,  but  later  are  dominated  by 
altruistic  and  cosmic  emotions.  We  find  it  necessary 
to  appeal  to  seK-emotions  in  the  government  of  chil- 
dren. Some  of  the  egoistic  emotions  can  not  be  too 
earnestly  cultivated ;  among  these  we  class  cheerfulness, 
hope,  desire  for  knowledge,  and  the  desire  to  make  the 
most  of  one's  self.  Great  care,  however,  is  needed  to 
avoid  the  danger  of  self-emotion  degenerating  into  self- 
ishness, and  egoistic  emotion  into  egotism. 

Comparative  Psychology. — Brutes  gain  impressions 
something  lower  than  ideas,  and  recall  these  impressions. 
The  low  forms  of  egoistic  emotions,  of  which  brutes 
are  capable,  are  occasioned  by  impressions,  immediate 
or  revived.  These  brute  emotions  differ  widely  from 
rational  egoistic  emotions.  Superficial  investigators  are 
in  danger  of  being  misled  by  deceptive  appearances. 
Many  of  these  brute   feelings   are   instinctive;  many 

*  See  "  Education  of  Self-Emotions,"  '♦  Applied  Psychology." 


THE  EMOTIONS— EGOISTIC  EMOTIONS.  221 

arise  from  sensuous  impressions ;  but  the  higlier  egoia 
tic  emotions  are  wanting  in  brute  life. 

SUG  GESTIVE  STUD  Y-HINTS. 

Eeview. — What  do  you  mean  by  feelings?  Is  feeling  physi- 
cal or  mental  f  Why  do  you  call  some  feelings  physical  feelings  1 
How  do  knowing  and  feeling  differ  ?  What  do  you  mean  by  feeling 
being  blind  ? 

What  do  you  mean  by  emotions  f  Illustrate.  Show  that  we 
must  know  before  we  can  have  emotions.  Why  are  the  emotions 
called  intellectual  feelings  ?    Why  are  they  called  heart-powers  ? 

What  do  you  mean  by  egoistic  emotions  ?  By  altruistic  %  By 
cosmic  ?    Give  an  example  of  each. 

Why  are  egoistic  emotions  called  self-emotions  I  Personal 
emotions  I    Give  the  distinction  between  egoistic  and  egotistic. 

Give  your  analysis  of  regret;  of  rejoicing;  of  hope.  What 
difference  is  there  between  a  power  to  feel  and  a  feeling  ?  Does  the 
feeling  always  imply  the  power  to  feel  ? 

What  is  the  office  of  the  egoistic  emotions  ?  Why  is  self-preser- 
vation called  the  first  law  of  nature  ?  How  do  these  feelings  tend 
to  exalt  self  I    Illustrate. 

Name  the  first  characteristic  of  the  egoistic  emotions ;  the  sec- 
ond.   Illustrate  each  from  your  own  experience. 

State  the  author's  definition  of  the  egoistic  emotions;  your 
definition ;  McCosh's  definition. 

What  is  meant  by  chronological  f  By  logical  ?  By  pyschologi- 
cal  t  What  are  retrospective  egoistic  emotions  I  Immediate  f  Pro- 
spective t    Give  three  examples  of  each. 

Write  eight  retrospective  egoistic  emotions;  eight  immediate 
emotions ;  eight  prospective  emotions.  Why  do  you  write  the 
emotions  in  pairs! 

What  do  you  mean  by  the  desires  f  By  the  desire  for  life  f 
For  property!  For  power!  For  beauty!  For  esteem!  For 
perfection!  For  knowledge!  What  is  happiness!  Is  it  one  of 
the  primitive  desires!    Give  President  Porter's  views. 

When  do  the  egoistic  emotions  predominate!  In  the  govern- 
ment of  children,  must  these  feelings  be  addressed  !  Give  some 
egoistic  emotions  which  should  be  stimulated.     Give  some  that 


220       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Iminediate  Self-Emotions. — I  am  conscious  of  present 
good  and  evil.  The  self -emotions  occasioned  by  con- 
templating the  present  with  reference  to  self  are  called 
immediate  egoistic  emotions.  You  may  extend  at  your 
leisure  the  list  of  these  emotions,  and  explain  and  illus- 
trate each. 

Retrospective  Self-Emotions. — Memory  brings  back 
the  past — the  good  we  enjoyed  and  the  evil  we  suffered. 
The  emotions  occasioned  by  contemplating  the  past 
with  reference  to  self  are  called  retrospective  egoistic 
emotions.  Notice  that  the  self-emotions  occur  in  pairs. 
Explain  and  illustrate  each  of  the  retrospective  self- 
emotions  in  the  preceding  diagram. 

Education  of  the  Egoistic  Emotions.* — These  feelings 
dominate  in  childhood,  but  later  are  dominated  by 
altruistic  and  cosmic  emotions.  We  find  it  necessary 
to  appeal  to  seK-emotions  in  the  government  of  chil- 
dren. Some  of  the  egoistic  emotions  can  not  be  too 
earnestly  cultivated ;  among  these  we  class  cheerfulness, 
hope,  desire  for  knowledge,  and  the  desire  to  make  the 
most  of  one's  self.  Great  care,  however,  is  needed  to 
avoid  the  danger  of  self-emotion  degenerating  into  self- 
ishness, and  egoistic  emotion  into  egotism. 

Comparative  Psychology. — Brutes  gain  impressions 
something  lower  than  ideas,  and  recall  these  impressions. 
The  low  forms  of  egoistic  emotions,  of  which  brutes 
are  capable,  are  occasioned  by  impressions,  immediate 
or  revived.  These  brute  emotions  differ  widely  from 
rational  egoistic  emotions.  Superficial  investigators  are 
in  danger  of  being  misled  by  deceptive  appearances. 
Many  of  these  brute   feelings   are   instinctive;  many 

*  See  "  Education  of  Self-Emotions,"  "  Applied  Psychology." 


THE  EMOTIONS— EGOISTIC  EMOTIONS.  221 

arise  from  sensuous  impressions ;  but  the  higher  egoia 
tic  emotions  are  wanting  in  brute  life. 

SUG  GESTIVE  STUD  Y-HINTS. 

Beview. — What  do  you  mean  by  feelings?  Is  feeling  physic 
cal  or  mental  t  Why  do  you  call  some  feelings  physical  feelings  1 
How  do  knowing  and  feeling  differ  ?  What  do  you  mean  by  feeling 
being  blind  ? 

What  do  you  mean  by  emotions  ?  Illustrate.  Show  that  we 
must  know  before  we  can  have  emotions.  Why  are  the  emotions 
called  intellectual  feelings  ?    Why  are  they  called  heart-powers  ? 

What  do  you  mean  by  egoistic  emotions  ?  By  altruistic  %  By 
cosmic  f    Give  an  example  of  each. 

Why  are  egoistic  emotions  called  self-emotions?  Personal 
emotions  ?    Give  the  distinction  between  egoistic  and  egotistic. 

Give  your  analysis  of  regret;  of  rejoicing;  of  hope.  What 
difference  is  there  between  a  power  to  feel  and  a  feeling  ?  Does  the 
feeling  always  imply  the  power  to  feel  ? 

What  is  the  office  of  the  egoistic  emotions  ?  Why  is  self-preser- 
vation called  the  first  law  of  nature  ?  How  do  these  feelings  tend 
to  exalt  self  ?    Illustrate. 

Name  the  first  characteristic  of  the  egoistic  emotions ;  the  sec- 
ond.   Illustrate  each  from  your  own  experience. 

State  the  author's  definition  of  the  egoistic  emotions;  your 
definition ;  McCosh's  definition. 

What  is  meant  by  chronological  ?  By  logical  ?  By  pyschologi- 
cal  ?  What  are  retrospective  egoistic  emotions  ?  Immediate  ?  Pro- 
spective ?    Give  three  examples  of  each. 

Write  eight  retrospective  egoistic  emotions;  eight  immediate 
emotions ;  eight  prospective  emotions.  Why  do  you  write  the 
emotions  in  pairs? 

What  do  you  mean  by  the  desires  ?  By  the  desire  for  life  f 
For  property?  For  power?  For  beauty?  For  esteem?  For 
perfection?  For  knowledge?  What  is  happiness?  Is  it  one  of 
the  primitive  desires?    Give  President  Porter's  views. 

When  do  the  egoistic  emotions  predominate?  In  the  govern- 
ment of  children,  must  these  feelings  be  addressed  ?  Give  some 
egoistic  emotions  which  should  be  stimulated.     Give  some  that 


222       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

should  be  repressed.    Tell  what  you  know  about  educating  the  self- 
emotions. 

Letter  and  Diagram. — You  may  construct  a  diagram  of  the  ego- 
istic emotions  which  you  may  include  in  your  letter  to  your  friend. 


CHAPTEK  XXI. 

THE   ALTEUISTIC   EMOTIONS. 

These  are  feelings  ministering  to  others.  Good 
and  evil  as  bearing  on  seK  call  forth  egoistic  emotions ; 
but  good  and  evil  as  bearing  on  others  call  forth  altru- 
istic emotions.     These  feelings  are  known  by  these  and 

similar 

''  Altruistic  Emotions. 
Sympathies  and  Antipathies. 

Names. ^    Affections  and  Disaffections. 

Benevolent  Emotions  and  Malevolent  Emotions. 
^  Loves  and  Hates. 

These  expressions  apply  equally  to  our  capabilities  to  feel  these 
emotions  and  to  the  feelings.  I  have  the  power  to  love  and  I  love 
my  friend.  I  feel  the  emotion  of  pity;  I  am  endowed  with  the 
capability  to  feel  pity. 

The  feelings  occasioned  by  the  realization  of  our 
relations  to  other  beings  are  called  altruistic  emotions, 
Because  we  feel  for  and  with  others,  these  emotions  are 
called  sympathies.  Because  we  incline  to  others,  these 
feelings  are  called  aiiections.  Because  we  wish  well  to 
others,  these  feelings  are  called  benevolent  emotions. 
But  we  feel  antipathies  as  well  as  sympathies ;  we  hate 
as  well  as  love.     Altruistic  emotion  best  expresses  the 


THE  ALTRUISTIC  EMOTIONS.  223 

meaning,  including  feeling  against  and  from  others,  as 
well  as  feeling  for  and  witli  others ;  but  the  other  names 
mentioned  are  expressive,  and  are  iixed  in  our  litera- 
ture. 

Analysis  of  Altruistic  Emotions. — We  notice  a  young 
man  struggling  against  poverty  and  misfortune  to  edu- 
cate himself.  We  feel  for  and  with  him,  we  sympathize 
with  hun.  We  wish  him  success.  We  rejoice  when  he 
succeeds.  The  good  Samaritan  looked  upon  the  un- 
fortunate traveler,  robbed  and  wounded,  and  ready  to 
die.  He  pitied  him,  and  this  pity  moved  him  to  ad- 
minister to  his  wants.  By  analyzing  mother-love, 
friendship,  emulation,  and  similar  feelings,  you  dis- 
cover the 

Office  of  the  Altruistic  Emotions. — Self,  as  love,  thinks 
no  evil,  suffers  long,  is  kind.  A  neighbor  is  sick  and 
needy.  Your  sympathies  move  you  to  cool  his  aching 
brow  and  minister  to  his  needs.  To  icorTc  good  to  others 
is  the  office  of  the  altruistic  emotions. 

Characteristics  of  the  Altruistic  Emotions. — These 
feelings  are  occasioned  by  ideas  pertaining  to  others, 
and  grow  out  of  our  relations  to  other  beings. 

1.  Altruistic  emotions  look  to  others.  When  be- 
nevolent, they  prompt  the  good  of  others ;  but  when 
perverted,  they  become  malevolent,  and  work  ill  to  our 
neighbors. 

2.  Altruistic  emotions  are  feelings  for  and  with 
others.  My  friend  is  fortunate;  I  rejoice  with  her. 
She  is  unfortunate ;  I  pity  and  aid  her.  The  opposite 
is  also  true ;  I  may  feel"  against  and  away  from  another, 
as  when  I  envy  my  successful  neighbor,  or  hate  and 
seek  to  injure  a  rival. 


224:       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

3.  Altruistic  emotions  are  two-sided.  This  is  true 
of  all  emotions,  but  eminently  so  of  these.  Ingratitude 
is  almost  as  common  as  gratitude.  Hate  too  often  domi- 
nates love.  Antipathies  are  almost  as  wide  as  sym- 
pathies. 

Altruistic  Emotions  Defined. — We  feel  for  or  against 
others.  Man  is  a  social  being  endowed  with  capabili- 
ties to  feel  emotions  that  prompt  the  good  of  others. 
The  mental  agitations  and  impulses  occasioned  bj  a 
knowledge  of  our  relations  to  others  are  called  altruistic 
emotions. 

1.  Altruistic  emotions  are  capabilities  to  love  or 
hate  others.  They  are  the  powers  to  feel  for  and  with 
others,  or  feel  from  and  against  others.  They  are  the 
emotions  that  minister  to  others. 

'  2.  Original.     Work  out  a  good  definition.     Illus- 
trate. 

3.  Various  Definitions. — 1.  Sully  :  Altruistic  emotion,  in  its 
perfect  form,  is  feeling  for  and  with  others.  2.  McCosh  :  Altruistic 
emotions  are  capabilities  to  feel  an  interest  in  others.  3.  Brooks  : 
Altruistic  emotions  are  feelings  which  go  out  to  another  with  a  wish 
of  good  or  evil.  4.  White  :  The  powers  to  feel  good  or  evil  toward 
others  are  termed  altruistic  emotions. 

Classes  of  Altruistic  Emotions. — The  terms  expressive 
of  these  emotions  are  marvelously  numerous.  Charity 
has  more  than  fifty  English  synonyms.  The  few  groups 
of  altruistic  emotions  inserted  here  will  suggest  to  you 
the  indefinite  extension  of  the  list.  Clearly,  some  of 
these  terms  are  synonyms  ;  but,  for  the  most  part,  each 
expresses  a  distinct  shade  of  feeling.  You  will  find  it 
profitable  to  linger  over  these  terms,  defining  and  illus 
trating  each  from  your  own  experience. 


THE  ALTRUISTIC  EMOTIONS. 


225 


Altruistic 
Emotions  ^ 


Prospective. —  \ 


Immediate. —  ^ 


Rfetrospective.- 


Same  as  Immediate,  but  looking 
to  the  future. 

Love  or  Hate ;  Friendship  or  En- 
mity ;  Trust  or  Jealousy ;  Sym- 
pathy or  Antipathy ;  Good  Will 
or  Malice ;  Pity  or  Indifference ; 
Admiration  or  Envy ;  Adoration 
or  Blasphemy;  Reverence  or 
Scorn.     Etc.,  etc. 

Loving  or  Loathing;  Interest  or 
Indifference;  Kindness  or  Un- 
kindness ;  Gratitude  or  Ingrati- 
tude ;  Philanthropy  or  Misan- 
thropy ;  Mercy  or  Cruelty ;  Good 
Humor  or  Anger;  Honor  or 
Shame.    Etc.,  etc. 

Same  as  Immediate,  but  looking 
to  the  past. 


Love. — The  soul-energy  that  draws  hearts  together 
is  called  love.  The  lovely  awakens  love.  We  love  the 
lovely.    We  can  not  love  the  hateful. 

1.  Supreme  love.  God  is  love  and  He  is  altogether  lovely.  In- 
finite loveliness  awakens  our  souls  to  their  deepest  depths.  I  love 
the  loving  Father  with  all  my  heart.  Veneration,  reverence,  wor- 
ship, grow  out  of  supreme  love.  Love  tends  to  union.  What  at- 
traction is  to  the  physical  universe,  love  is  to  the  spiritual  universe. 
The  one  unitizes  the  world  of  matter ;  the  other  the  world  of  mind. 

2.  Parental  love.  This  is  one  of  the  purest  and  noblest  of  feel- 
ings. It  unitizes  the  family,  and  works  the  highest  good  to  off- 
spring.   Mother-love  is  the  salt  of  the  earth. 

3.  Conjugal  love.  An  absorbing  reciprocal  affection  makes  of 
two  lives  one.  Each  family,  united  by  love,  becomes  a  paradise. 
Happiness  comes  from  a  union  of  hearts  and  a  union  of  lives. 

4.  FilicU  love.  Loving  and  loved,  children  cheerfully  yield  to 
parental  authority  and  counsel,  and  grow  into  lovely  and  loving 
men  and  women. 

5.  Fraternal  love.  The  offspring  of  the  same  parents  are  bound 
together  by  strong  ties.    As  the  race  is  one  great  family,  the  realiza- 


226       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

tion  of  the  brotherhood  of  man  and  fatherhood  of  God  leads  to  a 
higher  exercise  of  filial  and  parental  love. 

6.  Love  of  friends.  He  is  the  friend  indeed  who  sticketh  closer 
than  a  brother.  The  love  between  David  and  Jonathan,  and  between 
Damon  and  Pythias,  surpassed  the  love  between  men  and  women. 
Friendship  is  an  ennobling  emotion.  A  man  who  is  true  to  his 
friends,  though  a  robber,  is  capable  of  great  things.  True  friend- 
ship never  dies. 

7.  Love  of  country.  Love  is  the  tie  that  binds  together  rational 
beings.  We  degrade  this  noble  emotion  when  we  call  the  instinctive 
affection  of  brutes,  love ;  and  much  more  when  we  term  the  brutal 
lusts  of  men  love.  But  patriotism  may  well  be  called  the  love  of 
country. 

Sympathies. — Fellow-feelings,  or  feelings  for  and 
with  our  fellow-beings,  are  called  sympathies.  Sym- 
pathies bind  social  beings  together.  Our  impulses  to 
do  good  to  others  spring  from  our  sympathies. 

1.  Growth  of  sympathies.  Capabilities  to  feel,  like  capabilities 
to  know,  are  endowments.  Man  is  endowed  with  altruistic  emotions, 
called  fellow-feelings  or  sympathies.  Very  early  the  child  laughs 
with  those  who  laugh,  and  weeps  with  those  who  weep.  Children 
respond  to  the  emotions  of  their  companions.  Later,  the  youth 
represents  to  himself  the  joys  and  sorrows  of  others  and  sympathizes 
with  them.  When  we  can  enter  into  another's  inmost  heart  and  feel 
lor  and  with  him,  our  sympathies  are  fully  active. 

2.  Analysis  of  acts  of  sympathy.  Jesus  at  the  grave  of  Lazarus 
is  a  perfect  example.  Study  the  details.  In  this,  as  in  all  acts  of 
sympathy,  the  mental  process  seems  to  be  as  follows :  (1)  Observation 
is  the  first  step.  We  must  know  the  joys  and  sorrows  of  others. 
We  must  note  the  facial  and  vocal  expression  of  emotion.  (2)  Inter- 
pretation of  the  signs  of  emotion  is  the  second  step.  We  recall  our 
emotional  experience.  I  have  lost  a  parent.  I  can  sympathize  with 
my  bereaved  friend.  (3)  Imagination  is  the  third  step.  I  make  real 
the  peculiar  disposition  and  circumstances  of  my  friend  and  put  my- 
self in  his  place,  and  thus  enable  myself  to  fully  share  his  joys  or 
sorrows.  This  is  sympathy.  Next  to  love,  sympathy  best  expresses 
benevolent  altruistic  emotion. 

3.  Suffering  and  Sympathy — It  is  only  through  our  personal  ex- 


THE  ALTRUISTIC  EMOTIONS.  227 

periences  that  we  gain  the  power  of  sympathizing  with  others.  We 
should  never  be  able  to  feel  another's  pain,  if  we  had  never  felt  a 
pain  of  our  own.  So  it  is  in  all  the  trials  of  our  fellows ;  before  we 
can  enter  into  the  feelings  of  one  who  is  tempted,  or  who  is  disap- 
pointed, or  who  is  humiliated,  or  who  is  bereaved,  we  must  ourselves 
suffer — being  tempted,  or  being  disappointed,  or  being  humiliated, 
or  being  bereaved.  It  is  hard  to  have  these  trials  for  ourselves ;  but 
it  is  good  for  others  that  we  have  and  exercise  sympathy  with  those 
who  are  called  to  such  trials  for  themselves.  And,  as  we  can  never 
gain  this  power  except  through  these  trials,  let  us  find  a  comfort  in 
the  thought  that  every  trial  sent  to  us  is  a  call  to  added  fitness  in 
the  all-important  ministry  of  loving  sympathy. 

Hates,  Antipathies,  Malevolent  Emotions. — We  may 
abhor  sin  and  hate  every  evil  way ;  but  when  our  hearts 
become  bitter,  and  we  would  work  the  injury  of  others, 
our  emotions  are  malevolent.  These  ugly  emotions 
take  many  forms.  Now  anger,  now  spite,  now  malice, 
now  revenge,  now  jealousy,  but  always  hate.  These 
hateful  emotions  drive  social  beings  apart  and  fill  the 
cup  of  misery.  The  less  we  have  to  do  with  them  the 
better.  While  hating  sin  with  a  perfect  hatred,  we 
may  love  sinners  and  seek  to  save  them.  Malevolence 
in  all  its  forms  is  perverted  and  misdirected  emotion. 
Malevolent  emotions  are  perverted  feelings ;  they  are 
not  endowments  but  perversions.  "  God  made  man  up- 
right." *'  The  emotions  are  all  good  in  themselves,  and 
are  not  to  be  eradicated  but  guided." 

Play  of  the  Emotions. — More  wonderful  than  the 
combinations  in  music  are  the  play  and  interplay  of  the 
emotions.  The  heart  is  truly  an  instrument  of  a  thous- 
and strings.  The  key-board  embraces  many  octaves. 
When  attuned  to  harmony,  its  music  is  sweeter  than 
the  music  of  the  spheres.  Love  fills  the  soul  with  bliss 
and  inspires  every  noble  endeavor. 


228       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


Egoistic  and  Altruistic  Emotions,  incident  to  Success 
or  Failure. — The  thoughtful  student  will  linger  long 
over  the  following  diagram,  given  by  Dr.  Bascom.  You 
may  here  get  a  clearer  insight  into  the  emotion  world 
than  by  reading  volumes  of  theory.  Look  into  the  mir- 
ror of  consciousness  and  see  yourself  in  each  emotion. 
With  the  diagram  before  you,  rehearse  your  greatest 
success  as  well  as  your  greatest  failure.     Tell  the  emo- 


Egoistic  and 
Altruistic    -{ 
Emotions. 


r    ..." 

[    Hope, 

As  being       ^ 

Joy» 

achieved. 

1 

'^    Satisfaction. 
'    Pride, 

As  achieved  by  ^ 

Vanity, 

Incident  to 

ourselves. 

Courage, 

success. 

1 

.    Confidence. 
■    Gratitude, 

By  the  aid  of    . 

Good-will, 

others. 

Attachment. 
Admiration, 

By  others. 

Honor. 

^ 

^    Emulation. 

'    Fear, 

^   As  occurring. 

Disappointment. 
^    Discouragement 
Humility, 

Through  our-    - 

Shame, 

selves. 

.    Mortification. 
"  Anger, 

Incident  to 

. 

Rage, 

failure.      "^ 

Hatred, 

Through  oth-   ^ 
ers. 

Malice, 

Jealousy, 

Envy, 

^  Defiance. 

Contempt, 

^      To  others. 

Pity, 
-   Compassion. 

THE  ALTRUISTIC  EMOTIONS.  229 

tions  you  felt  in  each  case.  Now  take  Washington  at 
the  close  of  the  Revolution,  and  Napoleon  in  his  last 
imprisonment.  Tell  the  emotions  you  imagine  that 
each  felt. 

SUGGESTIVE  STUD Y-HINTS. 

Eeview. — Define  consciousness.  State  its  ofiice;  its  charac- 
teristics. What  is  a  conscious  -  percept  ?  Name  five.  Give  the 
distinction  between  physical  feelings  and  instincts;  between  the 
physical  feelings  and  the  emotions.  Give  the  definition,  office,  and 
characteristics  of  the  egoistic  emotions.  Define  and  illustrate  retro- 
spective, immediate,  and  prospective  emotions. 

What  do  you  mean  by  altruistic  emotion  ?  Give  the  etymology 
of  the  word.  Why  are  these  feelings  called  sympathies  I  affections  f 
benevolent  emotions  f  love  ?  Why  are  they  also  called  antipathies  ? 
disaffections ?  malevolent  emotions'?  hates?  Give  examples  of  each 
from  your  own  experience. 

What  is  the  office  of  the  altruistic  emotions  ?  Give  the  three 
characteristics  of  these  emotions.     Illustrate. 

State  the  author's  definition  of  the  altruistic  emotions;  your 
definition ;  the  definition  of  Dr.  Brooks. 

Give  ten  groups  of  altruistic  emotions.  Illustrate.  Give  ten 
synonyms  of  charity. 

Explain  the  seven  kinds  of  love  mentioned.  Explain  the  mean- 
ing of  sympathy.    Illustrate  by  Jesus  at  the  grave  of  Lazarus. 

What  do  you  mean  by  malevolent  emotions!  Give  some  of 
these.    Are  these  original  endowments  or  perversions? 

Tell  about  the  play  and  interplay  of  the  emotions.  When  is 
there  harmony  ?  when  discord  ? 

Give  some  egoistic  emotions  incident  to  success.  Incident  to 
failure.  Give  some  altruistic  emotions  incident  to  success.  Incident 
to  failure. 

When  is  a  feeling  called  a  passion  f  What  is  meant  by  the  pas- 
sion for  strong  drink f  by  the  passion  of  anger!  by  the  passion  of 
love  !  by  the  passion  of  avarice  !  by  the  passion  of  ambition  !  What 
do  you  understand  by  the  ruling  passion  f 

Latter. — In  a  thoughtful  letter  you  will  tell  about  these  enno- 
bling emotions.    Inclose  to  your  friend  an  analysis  of  this  chapter. 


230       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

COSMIC   EMOTIONS TRUTH    EMOTIONS.^ 

By  cosmic  emotions  we  mean  the  feelings  occa- 
sioned by  ideas  of  the  true,  the  beautiful,  and  the  good. 
The  reign  of  law,  the  beauty  of  earth  and  sky,  and  the 
all-pervading  good,  fill  me  with  a  boundless  joy.  Ego- 
istic emotions  terminate  in  self ;  altruistic  emotions  ter- 
minate in  others ;  but  cosmic  emotions  are  boundless. 

J  The  Cosmic  Emotions. 
The  Rational  Emotions. 
The  Spiritual  Emotions. 
The  Higher  Emotions. 

Because  these  feelings  belong  peculiarly  to  our 
higher  nature,  they  are  called  spiritual  emotions.  Be- 
cause only  rational  beings  are  endowed  with  these 
capabilities,  the  powers  to  feel  in  view  of  cosmic  ideas 
are  called  rational  emotions.  Because  the  soul  goes  out 
to  the  universe  in  the  feelings  occasioned  by  the  true 
and  the  beautiful  and  the  good,  they  are  called  cosmic 

emotions. 

r  Truth  Emotions,  or  Knowledge  Emotions. 
Cosmic  Emotions —  -<  ^sthetical  Emotions^  or  Beauty  Emotions. 
(.  Ethical  Emotions,  or  Duty  Emotions. 

We  are  a  part  of  a  universe  of  related  things,  and 
we  are  endowed  with  powers  to  perceive  thmgs  and 
discern  relations.  As  one  by  one  they  open  to  our 
view,  great  truths  thrill  us.     The  feelings  awakened  by 

*  Review  Chapter  XV  before  studying  this  chapter. 


COSMIC  EMOTIONS— TRUTH  EMOTIONS.  231 

truth  are  called  truth  emotions.  We  look  without  and 
within  ;  beauty  chamis  us.  The  feehngs  occasioned  by 
beauty  are  called  beauty  emotions.  We  find  out  our 
relations  to  others ;  we  feel  imperative  impulses  to  do 
to  others  as  we  would  have  them  do  to  us.  These  feel- 
ings are  occasioned  by  ideas  of  right,  and  are  called 
duty  emotions. 

THE   TRUTH   EMOTIONS. 

By  these  we  mean  our  capabilities  to  feel,  in  view 
of  truth  discerned.  These  feelings  are  known  by  the 
following 

(  Truth  Emotions. 
Names. —  <  Knowledge  Emotions. 
'  Philosophic  Emotions. 

Because  these  emotions  are  occasioned  by  the  dis- 
cernment of  relations,  they  are  termed  philosophic  emo- 
tions ;  as  they  well  up,  in  view  of  knowledge  gained, 
they  are  termed  knowledge  emotions. 

Analysis  of  Truth  Emotions.  —  Archimedes  had 
studied  long  and  hard  to  find  the  law  of  specific  gravity. 
While  bathing,  the  happy  thought  struck  him.  He  ran 
out  without  his  clothes,  shouting  "  Eureka  I  Eureka ! 
I  have  found  it  I  I  have  found  it ! "  He  discovered  an 
important  truth  which  occasioned  ecstatic  truth  emo- 
tions.    Give  examples  from  your  own  experience. 

Office  of  Truth  Emotions. — Truth  is  the  food  of  the 
soul.  The  discovery  of  truth  occasions  much  of  our 
deepest  joy. 

1.  Truth  emotions  move  us  to  search  for  truth  as 
for  hidden  treasures.  A  thirst  for  knowledge  is  deeply 
impressed  upon  our  nature. 


232       ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY   AND   EDUCATION. 

2.  Truth  emotions  reward  research  with  abiding  joy. 
Happy  are  they  who  hunger  and  thirst  after  truth.  The 
office  of  the  truth  emotions  is  to  move  us  to  seek  truth, 
as  well  as  to  enable  us  to  appreciate  and  enjoy  the  true. 

Characteristics  of  Truth  Emotions. — We  discern 
truths.  In  view  of  these  truths,  we  feel  truth  emotion. 
The  emotions  of  Harvey,  when  he  discovered  the  circu- 
lation of  the  blood ;  of  Newton,  when  he  discovered 
gravitation ;  of  Columbus,  when  he  discovered  a  conti- 
nent, may  be  feebly  imagined. 

1.  Truth  emotions  are  occasioned  hy  truths  dis- 
cerned. These  emotions  are  deepest  when  truths  are 
tirst  discerned,  but,  like  beauty,  truth  is  a  joy  forever. 

2.  Truth  emotions  are  houndless — are  cosmic. 
"  We  mingle  with  the  universe  and  feel 

What  we  can  not  all  express  nor  all  conceal." 
Truth  Emotions  Defined. — As  yoti  experience  these 
emotions  every  hour,  they  are  best  defined  by  referring 
them  to  your  own  conscious  experience. 

1.  Truth  em^otions  are  our  capabilities  to  feel  in 
mew  of  truth.  Our  feelings,  occasioned  by  the  discern- 
ment of  truth,  are  truth  emotions. 

2.  Original.  Construct  a  good  definition  and  illus- 
trate it. 

3.  Various  Definitions. — 1.  Bain:  Knowledge  emotions  are  the 
delights  we  experience  when  we  discern  truth.  2.  Garvey  :  Truth 
emotion  is  the  radical  impulse  to  seek  and  enjoy  truth.  3.  Bascom  : 
Truth  emotion  inspires  pursuit  and  enjoyment  of  knowledge. 

Nature  of  Truth  Emotions. — "I  will  return  to  my 
peaceful  mathematics,"  was  the  resolve  of  a  savant 
weary  of  political  turmoil.  "  A  night  with  the  peace- 
ful stars  is  better  than  a  thousand  elsewhere."     Truth 


COSMIC  EMOTIONS— TRUTH  EMOTIONS.  233 

emotions  are  usually  peaceful,  but  when  great  truths 
burst  upon  the  mind  these  emotions  become  torrents. 
Think  of  the  emotions  of  Newton  when  he  discovered 
the  law  of  gravitation ;  of  Franklin,  when  he  discovered 
the  identity  of  electricity  and  lightning ;  of  Paul,  when 
he  first  realized  that  Jesus  was  God.  True  education 
leads  the  learner  to  discover  truth  for  himself,  thus 
making  student-life  a  perpetual  joy.  Though  usually 
tranquil  and  peaceful,  the  truth  emotions  are  an  ever- 
flowing  fountain. 

Growth  of  the  Truth  Emotions.* — Children  are  full  of 
curiosity  and  open-eyed  wonder.  New  objects  delight 
them.  Their  troublesome  questions  are  interminable. 
We  discover  the  buddings  of  truth  emotion.  With  the 
years  the  desire  to  find  out  increases  and  the  joys  of  dis- 
covery multiply.  Childhood  revels  in  objective  truth. 
Thinking  the  thoughts  of  God  after  him,  delights  child- 
hood and  fills  the  soul  of  manhood  with  inexpressible 
joy.  True  teaching  and  right  learning  educate  truth 
emotions. 

SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

Eeview. — What  do  you  mean  by  a  faculty  f  a  power  f  a  capa- 
bility t  a  soul-energy  f  Give  a  distinction  between  a  cognitive  power 
and  an  emotional  power.  Is  self  active  or  passive  when  he  feels! 
What  do  you  understand  by  the  soul  acting  as  a  unit  f 

What  do  you  mean  by  cosmic  emotions  f  Why  are  these  feel- 
ings called  rational  emotions  t  spiritual  emotions  f  higher  emotions  f 
cosmic  emotions  t  Give  the  termination  of  egoistic  emotions ;  of  al- 
truistic emotions;  of  cosmic  emotions. 

What  do  you  mean  by  the  truth  emotions!  What  distinction 
do  you  make  between  the  jwwers  to  feel  in  view  of  truth  and  the 
feelings  f 

•  See  "  Education  of  the  Truth  Emotions,"  "  Applied  Psychology.»» 


234       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Tell  the  story  of  Archimedes ;  of  Franklin's  kite ;  of  Newton's 
apple.    What  do  you  call  the  feelings  thus  awakened?    Why  ? 

Give  the  office  of  the  truth  emotions ;  of  self  emotions ;  of  al- 
truistic emotions.  What  feelings  move  us  to  search  for  truth? 
Give  two  characteristics  of  the  truth  emotions. 

Give  the  author's  definition  of  the  truth  emotions ;  give  your 
definition ;  give  Bain's ;  give  Garvey's ;  give  Bascom's. 

Are  truth  emotions  always  peaceful  ?  Why  should  the  learner 
be  led  to  discern  truth  for  himself?  Tell  about  the  growth  and 
education  of  the  truth  emotions. 

Letter. — The  treatment  of  the  truth  emotions  is  so  brief  that  you 
need  to  further  develop  the  subject.  Make  a  good  topical  analysis 
of  this  chapter  as  a  part  of  your  letter  to  your  friend. 


CHAPTER  XXIIL 

ESTHETIC    EMOTIONS. 

By  these  we  mean  our  powers  to  feel  in  the  presence 
of  heauty.  The  feelings  occasioiied  by  beauty,  sublim- 
ity, or  humor  are  called  aesthetic  emotions.  As  beauty 
predominates,  these  feelings  are  often  called  the  beauty 
emotions. 

f  Emotions  of  Beauty  or  Ugliness. 
Esthetic  Emotions —  •<  Emotions  of  Sublimity  or  Insignificance. 
(.  Emotions  of  the  Humorous  or  the  Prosy. 

Analysis  of  Beauty  Emotions. — You  gaze  upon  the 
night-blooming  cereus ;  slowly  the  flower  expands. 
You  exclaim,  "  How  beautiful !  "  Your  feelings  occa- 
sioned thus  are  called  beauty  emotions. 

Characteristics  of  Beauty  Emotions. — You  are  con- 
Bcious  of  peculiar  feelings  of  satisfaction  and  joy  in  the 
presence  of  beauty  of  form,  beauty  of  color,  beauty  of 


ESTHETIC  EMOTIOXS.  235 

80und,  beauty  of  motion,  beauty  of  character.     These 
feelings  are  beauty  emotions. 

1.  Beauty  emotions  are  occasioned  hy  the  heautiful. 
We  find  beauty  everywhere.  We  behold  the  beautiful 
landscape,  and  our  souls  thrill  with  beauty  emotions. 

2.  Beauty  emotions  are  houndless — are  cosmic.  As 
we  gaze  upon  the  beautiful  sunset,  we  forget  self,  for- 
get the  world,  and  mingle  with  the  universe.  Like 
truth  emotions,  beauty  emotions  are  complete  in  them- 
selves.    They  satisfy. 

Office  of  the  iEsthetic  Emotions. — We  live  in  a  uni- 
verse of  beauty  and  sublimity  and  humor,  and  we  are 
endowed  with  capabilities  to  appreciate  and  enjoy 
beauty,  sublimity,  humor.  The  beauty  emotions  place 
the  soul  en  rapport  with  the  beauty  world.  Poetry  and 
eloquence  and  song  and  the  beauty  of  holiness  and  the 
beautiful  earth  and  the  sublimely  beautiful  heavens  fill 
us  with  rapture.     God  is  beauty. 

.Esthetic  Emotions  Defined. — Self,  as  noumenal  per- 
ception, immediately  beholds  beauty.  In  view  of 
beauty,  self,  as  beauty  emotion,  feels  beauty,  joy,  and 
satisfaction,  and  the  impulse  to  produce  and  possess  the 
beautiful. 

1.  Esthetic  emotions  are  the  capabilities  to  feel  in 
viev)  of  heauty.  The  beauty  emotions  are  the  soul-en- 
ergies to  feel  beauty.  The  agitations  and  impulses  oc- 
casioned by  beauty  are  esthetic  emotions.  Beauty  as 
used  here  includes  sublimity  and  humor. 

2.  Original,  Give  a  definition  expressive  of  your 
views.     What  is  sublimity  ?     What  is  wit  ? 

Objective  and  Subjective  Beauty. — What  is  beauty? 
All  know,,  but  no  one  can   tell.     Intuitively  we  per- 
17 


236       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY   AND  EDUCATION. 

ceive  concrete  beauty,  and  consciously  feel  its  spell. 
But  the  beauty  idea  is  a  necessary  notion,  is  ultimate,  is 
inexplicable.  You  may  say  that  beauty  is  a  thing  of 
proportion  and  harmony ;  you  merely  give  two  of  its 
numerous  attributes.  Whatever  occasions  beauty  emo- 
tions we  call  beautiful,  as  the  lily  or  the  rainbow. 

1.  Ohjective  heauty.  I  look  upon  the  blushing  rose 
and  feel  beauty.  I  listen  to  songs  of  birds,  and  feel 
beauty.  I  read  the  "  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,"  and 
feel  beauty.  I  ponder  the  life  of  Florence  Nightin- 
gale, and  feel  beauty.  The  something  external  which 
occasions  beauty  emotions  is  called  ohjectwe  heauty. 
Space,  time,  causation,  and  objective  beauty  are  external 
realities.     Beauty  is  objective. 

2.  Subjective  heauty.  By  the  subjective  we  mean 
the  mind  itself.  Self  stands  face  to  face  with  beauty — 
knows  beauty  intuitively.  We  are  endowed  with  the 
intellectual  power  to  behold  beauty.  Self  feels  beauty 
when  in  its  presence.  We  are  endowed  with  powers 
to  feel  beauty.  The  capabilities  to  perceive  and  enjoy 
beauty  are  subjective.  Perceiving  and  feeling  beauty 
are  acts  of  the  mind,  and  may  be  called  subjective 
heauty.     Beauty  is  subjective. 

Ugliness. — The  opposite  of  beauty  is  ugliness.  If 
beauty  is  proportion  and  harmony,  ugliness  is  the  lack 
of  these.  The  ugly  gives  rise  to  ugly  emotions.  Ugli- 
ness is  not  merely  the  absence  of  beauty,  it  is  something 
external  that  occasions  repellent  and  disagreeable  emo- 
tions. The  beautiful  pleases,  the  ugly  displeases ;  the 
beautiful  attracts,  the  ugly  repels ;  the  beautiful  occa- 
sions joyous  emotions,  the  ugly  occasions  depressing 
emotions.     We  desire  the  beautiful,  but  have  an  aver- 


iESTHETIO  EMOTIONS.  237 

sion  for  the  ugly.     Make  a  diagram  of  emotions  inci- 
dent to  beauty  and  ugliness. 

Beauty  of  Character  is  the  highest  type  of  beauty. 
When  integrity,  efficiency,  and  modesty  blend  in  pro- 
portion and  harmony,  we  have  a  Joseph,  a  Washington, 
a  Jesus.  Perfect  character  is  perfect  beauty.  How- 
ever ugly  the  body,  the  beauty  of  holiness  covers  the 
grand  man  or  woman  with  a  halo  of  glory.  All  moral 
deformity  is  ugly.  A  base  character,  as  a  Judas  or  a 
!Nero,  is  the  extreme  of  ugliness. 

Emotions  of  Sublimity. — A  cascade  is  beautiful; 
Niagara  is  sublime.  Electrical  experiments  are  beauti- 
ful; the  thunder-storm  is  sublime.  Dress-parade  is 
beautiful;  the  battle  is  sublime.  Yastness  occasions 
emotions  of  the  sublime.  Whatever  carries  the  mind 
into  the  infinite  occasions  the  idea  and  feeling  of  sub- 
limity. 

"  Beauty  pleases  and  delights ;  sublimity  awes,  yet 
elevates."  The  emotion  of  insignificance  is  the  oppo- 
site of  the  emotion  of  sublimity.  Both  emotions  are 
occasioned  by  the  familiar  fable,  "The  mountain 
labored  and  brought  forth  a  mouse."  Give  other  ex- 
amples. 

Emotions  of  the  Humorous. — In  view  of  the  ludi- 
crous, the  witty,  the  humorous,  the  ego  effervesces 
with  pleasure.  These  emotions  are  called  emotions  of 
the  ludicrous,  of  the  witty,  of  the  humorous.  Isaac 
Barrow  well  says,  "  It  may  be  demanded  what  the  thing 
we  speak  of  is,  or  what  this  facetiousness  doth  impart. 
To  which  question  I  might  reply  as  Democritus  did  to 
him  who  asked  the  definition  of  a  man.  ^'Tis  that 
which  we  all  see  and  know ;  any  one  better  apprehends 


238       ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY   AND  EDUCATION. 

what  it  is  by  acquaintance  than  I  can  infer  him  by, 
description.  It  is,  indeed,  a  thing  so  versatile  and  mnk 
tiform,  appearing  in  so  many  shapes,  so  many  postures, 
so  many  garbs,  so  variously  apprehended  by  several 
eyes  and  judgments,  that  it  seemeth  no  less  hard  to 
settle  a  clear  and  certain  notion  thereof  than  to  make 
a  portrait  of  Proteus,  or  to  define  the  hgure  of  the 
fleeting  air.  Its  ways  are  unaccountable  and  inexplica- 
ble, being  answerable  to  the  numberless  rovings  of 
fancy  and  windings  of  language.'  " 

The  emotions  occasioned  by  the  flat  or  the  dry  arc 
the  opposite  of  those  occasioned  by  sparkling  wit. 
"  Humor,  however  strange  it  may  seem,  is  very  com- 
monly associated  with  sympathy.  It  was  remarked  by 
Sir  Walter  Scott  of  Robert  Bums,  whea  he  appeared 
in  Edinburgh,  that  in  his  conversation  there  w^as  a 
strange  combination  of  pathos  and  humor.  I  am  sure 
that  these  two,  humor  and  sympathy,  often  go  together. 
The  man  who  never  laughs,  or  who  can  not  laugh 
heartily,  I  suspect  is  deficient  in  tenderness  of  heart, 
while  he  may  be  characterized  by  many  virtues.  Cer- 
tain it  is  that  in  the  writings  of  many  of  our  great 
authors  pathos  and  humor  are  found  in  the  closest  con- 
nection. "  I  believe  that  the  fountains  of  smiles  and 
tears  lie  nearer  each  other  than  most  people  imagine."  * 
Education  of  the  .Esthetic  Eiiiotioiis.f — We  are  rap- 
idly reaching  the  conclusion  that  aesthetic  culture  is  as 
important  as  intellectual  culture.  To  this  end,  home  is 
made  beautiful,  and  the  modem  primary  school,  as  well 
as  the  kindergarten,  is  full  of  beauty.     Environments, 

*  McCosh. 

t  See  "  Education  of  Beauty  Emotions,"  "  Applied  Psychology." 


ESTHETIC  EMOTIONS.  239 

objects,  pictures,  songs,  plays,  art-work,  all  tend  to  de^ 
velop  the  beauty  emotions.  As  the  learner  advances,  he 
is  thrilled  with  higher  and  still  higher  forms  of  beauty. 
What  a  revolution ! 

SUGQESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

Eeview. — What  do  you  mean  by  the  emotions  ?  What  distinc- 
tion do  you  make  between  egoistic,  altruistic,  and  cosmic  emotions  1 
Do  ideas  cause  emotions,  or  merely  occasion  them  I 

What  do  you  mean  by  the  altruistic  emotions?  Is  a  capability 
to  feel  beauty  and  a  beauty  feeling  the  same  f  Illustrate.  Name 
the  classes  of  aesthetic  emotions. 

Analyze  three  cases  of  beauty  emotions  ;  three  of  the  sublime ; 
three  of  the  humorous. 

State  the  office  of  the  beauty  emotions;  of  the  emotions  of 
sublimity ;  of  the  humorous  emotions ;  give  examples  in  each  case. 

Tell  the  characteristics  of  beauty  emotions ;  of  sublimity  emo- 
tions ;  of  humorous  emotions ;  give  examples  in  each  case. 

Repeat  the  author's  definition  of  aesthetic  emotions ;  your  defini- 
tion ;  definitions  of  Haven.  Bain,  etc. 

What  is  beauty  ?  Objective  beauty  ?  Subjective  beauty  I  Give 
an  example  of  objective  beauty  ;  of  subjective  beauty. 

What  do  you  mean  by  ugliness?  Give  examples.  Explain 
what  you  mean  by  beauty  of  character.  Give  examples.  What  is 
an  ugly  character  ?    Give  examples. 

Tell  what  you  know  about  sublimity.  How  do  beauty  and  sub- 
limity differ?    Give  examples. 

Tell  what  you  know  about  humor.  How  do  wit  and  humor 
differ  ?    Illustrate. 

Tell  what  you  know  about  the  culture  of  the  aesthetic  emotions. 

Letter. — In  your  letter  tell  about  the  beauty  emotions  in  poetry 
and  art. 


240       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND   EDUCATION. 


Analysis  of  Chapters  XXII  and  XXIII. 

I.   The  Cosmic  Emotions  are  : 

The  truth  emotions.  The  aesthetic  emotions. 

The  ethical  emotions. 

XL  Analysis  of 

1.  Truth  emotions.  2.  Beauty  emotions. 

3.  Sublimity  emotions.  4.  Humor  emotions. 

in.  Office  of 

1.  Truth  emotions.  2.  Beauty  emotions. 

3.  Sublimity  emotions.  4.  Humor  emotions. 

IV.   Characteristics  of 

1.  The  truth  emotions.  2.  The  aesthetic  emotions' 

V.   Definitions  of 

The  truth  emotions.  The  aesthetic  emotions. 

Beauty. 
1.  Objective.        2.  Subjective. 

VI.   Emotions  of  Sublimity. 

VII.   Emotions  of  Humor. 

VIIL  Education  of 

1.  Truth  emotions.  2.  Esthetic  emotions. 


CHAPTER   XXIY. 

CONSCIENCE,    OR   THE    ETHICAL    EMOTIONS. 

By  conscience  is  meant  the  power  to  feel  ethical 
emotions  in  view  of  right.  The  ethical  emotions  are 
the  feelings  occasioned  by  perceiving  and  discerning 
right.  These  feelings  tend  to  universal  right,  and 
hence  are  classed  with  the  truth  emotions  and  the 
beauty  emotions  as  cosmic  emotions. 


CONSCIENCE,  OR  THE  ETHICAL  EMOTIONS.  241 


JTames. —  -< 


Conscience,  or  the  Ethical  Emotions. 
The  Emotions  of  Conscience. 
The  Emotions  of  Right. 
The  Emotions  of  Good. 
^  The  Duty  Emotions. 


As  these  emotions  look  to  good,  to  right,  to  duty, 
they  are  called  duty  emotions,  emotions  of  the  right, 
emotions  of  the  good,  and  emotions  of  conscience.  By 
common  consent  the  capability  to  feel  rightness  is 
termed  conscience,  and  the  feelings  incident  to  ideas 
of  right  and  wrong  are  called  emotions  of  conscience, 
or  ethical  emotions. 

Analysis  of  Ethical  Emotions. — Take  Paul :  "  I  perse- 
cuted Christians  conscientiously,  for  I  thought  I  ought." 
Because  he  believed  Jesus  to  be  an  impostor,  he  felt  it 
his  duty  to  crush  out  Christianity.  The  feeling  "I 
ought "  moved  Paul  to  persecute.  He  believed  it  was 
right,  and  felt  that  he  ought.  The  impulses  to  do  what 
we  believe  to  be  right  are  impulses  of  conscience.  Take 
Joseph  Reed.  When  tempted  to  betray  his  country  by 
the  offer  of  $50,000  and  high  office,  Eeed  rephed,  "  I 
am  not  worth  purchasing ;  but,  such  as  I  am,  the  King 
of  Great  Britain  is  not  rich  enough  to  buy  me."  He  be- 
lieved that  it  was  wrong  to  sell  his  country.  The  feel- 
ing "I  ought  not"  moved  Reed  to  refuse  the  bribe. 
The  impulses  to  refuse  to  do  what  we  believe  to  be 
wrong  are  impulses  of  conscience. 

Office  of  Conscience. — Conscience  is  the  mental  power 
to  feel  rightness.  Self,  as  conscience,  always  moves  to 
the  right.  "  Get  right  and  keep  right,"  are  its  impera- 
tives. To  feel  rightness  is  the  sole  office  of  conscience. 
But  ethical  emotions  are  prospective,  immediate,  or 


242       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY   AND   EDUCATION. 

retrospective  ;    hence    the  three   imperatives   of   con- 
science : 

1.  Find  out  the  right.  Self,  as  intellect,  finds  out  right,  but 
self,  as  conscience,  inspires  the  search.  "  Be  sure  you  are  right,  then 
go  ahead."  I  wish  to  invest  in  a  tempting  lottery ;  is  it  right  ?  I 
am  offered  $10,000  to  lobby  a  bill  through  Congress ;  ought  I  to  accept 
the  offer?  Is  it  right  to  play  cards,  attend  theatres,  dance,  flirt, 
drink  wine,  or  smoke  ?  At  every  step  these  troublesome  questions 
meet  us.  The  impulses  of  self  as  conscience  to  find  out  the  right 
are  ethical  emotions.  Paul  acted  blindly  but  conscientiously.  Be- 
cause he  refused  to  investigate,  and  went  on  blindly  persecuting 
Christians,  he  calls  himself  the  chief  of  sinners.  The  world  is  full 
of  these  sincere  wretches.  The  sun  shines,  but  men  shut  their  eyes 
and  declare  there  is  no  sun :  or,  if  there  is,  they  can  net  see  it.  Find 
out  the  right  is  the  first  imperative  of  conscience. 

2.  Choose  and  do  the  right.  Do  right  is  the  deepest  impulse  of 
the  heart.  You  have  investigated  to  the  utmost.  You  believe  tem- 
perance is  right  and  drinking  intoxicants  wrong.  Appetite  craves 
alcohol.  Conscience  says,  "  Touch  not,  taste  not,  handle  not — the 
accursed  thing."  The  impulse  to  choose  temperance  and  live  tem- 
perately is  an  emotion  of  conscience.  You  repress  your  lawless 
brute  cravings  and  act  in  accord  with  your  ethical  emotions.  You 
choose  and  act  conscientiously.  Choose  and  do  the  right  is  the 
second  imperative  of  conscience. 

3.  Get  right  and  keep  right.  Peter  denied  Christ.  Remorse, 
the  supreme  agony,  overwhelmed  him.  Remorse,  as  a  reformatory 
energy,  is  conscience  pleading,  "  Cease  doing  wrong  and  begin  doing 
right."  The  mute  pleadings  of  conscience  aroused  Peter,  and  he  be- 
came the  bravest  of  the  brave.  Continuing  wrong  is  the  unpardon- 
able sin.  The  drunkard  signs  the  pledge  ;  his  heart  glows  with  deep- 
est satisfaction.  This  is  conscience  moving  him  to  keep  right.  The 
emotion  of  duty  done  is  the  highest  joy.  It  sustains  us  amid  all 
trials.  It  sustains  the  martyr  at  the  stake.  Paul  exclaims,  "  I  have 
kept  the  faith,  and  will  receive  the  crown."  When  we  do  right,  we 
feel  the  approval  of  the  Author  of  right ;  but,  when  we  do  wrong,  we 
feel  his  disapproval.     The  poet  has  beautifully  expressed  this  idea: 

"  An  approving  conscience  is  the  smile  of  God,  remorse  his  frown." 
Oet  right  and  keep  right  is  the  third  imperative  of  conscience. 


CONSCIENCE,   OR   THE  ETHICAL  EMOTIONS.  243 

Characteristics  of  Conscience. — Since  conscieDce  is  onr 
only  power  to  feel  riglitness,  it  is  easy  to  distinguish 
ethical  emotions  from  other  feelings.  Other  marked 
characteristics  in  addition  to  those  given  may  be  pointed 
out. 

1.  Ethical  eTnotions  are  incident  to  ideas  of  right 
and  wrong.  Ko  other  ideas  occasion  these  feelings,  nor 
do  these  emotions  occur  except  in  connection  with  ethi- 
cal ideas.  Brutes  are  incapable  of  gaining  ethical  ideas, 
and  hence  feel  no  ethical  emotions. 

2.  Ethical  emotions  are  imperative.  Conscience  is 
the  only  imperative  soul-energy.  /  ought.,  do  right^ 
etc.,  are  the  imperatives  of  conscience.  Moral  law  is 
supreme,  as  are  the  emotions  of  right.  Not  may  but 
must  is  the  ethical  feeling.  "  I  can  not  tell  a  lie  "  ;  I 
can  not  afford  to  do  what  I  believe  to  be  wrong ;  I  can 
not  afford  to  disregard  my  ethical  impulses. 

3.  Ethical  emotions  dominate.  Pleasure,  self-in- 
terest, and  even  love  must  yield  to  the  imperative  of 
conscience.  "  Do  right  though  the  heavens  fall.''  "  I 
would  rather  be  right  than  be  President."  These  are 
good  illustrations.  Conscience  is  the  supreme  soul- 
energy.  Intellect  and  will,  as  well  as  all  the  lower  feel- 
ings, yield  to  conscience. 

Definitions  of  Conscience. — What  is  conscience  1  It 
is  not  knowing,  for  self,  as  intellect,  does  all  his  know- 
ing. It  is  not  choosing,  for  self,  as  will,  does  all  his 
acting,  choosing,  and  directing.  It  is  not  a  compound 
faculty,  for  a  faculty  is  a  mental  element.  Clearly, 
conscience  is  the  jx)wer  to  feel  rightness. 

1.  Conscience  is  the  power  to  feel  ethical  emotions 
in  view  of  ethical  ideas.     It  is  the  mental  energy  to 


244       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND   EDUCATION. 

feel  in  the  presence  of  right  and  wrong.  The  capability 
to  feel  rightness  is  an  ultimate  endowment  of  the  human 
soul.  No  analysis  can  resolve  the  emotion  of  right ;  no 
synthesis  can  derive  these  emotions  from  other  feelings. 
As  the  impulsion  to  right  is  a  mental  activity,  distinct 
in  kind,  we  are  compelled  to  class  conscience  as  a  mental 
faculty.  When  the  rubbish  is  removed,  and  the  mists 
are  cleared  away,  how  royally  conscience  stands  out  in 
the,mental  economy ! 

2.  Original  definitions.  You  may  write  out  your 
definition  of  conscience.  There  must  be  no  mystery. 
Let  there  be  sunlight  clearness.  The  vast  range  of  feel- 
ings occasioned  by  a  knowledge  of  right  and  wrong  are 
termed  ethical  emotions.  The  capability  to  feel  ethical 
emotions  is  called  conscience.  Our  impulses  to  do 
what  we  believe  to  be  right  are  acts  of  self  as  con- 
science. 

3.  Various  Definitions. — 1.  Dr.  I.  G.  John  :  Conscience  is  the 
moral  impulsion  in  man.  2.  Hopkins  :  Conscience  is  the  impulse 
felt  by  a  rational  being  to  obey  law.  3.  Bascom  :  Conscience  is  the 
power  to  perceive  and  feel  obligation. 

Remarks. — Self,  as  conscience,  feels  rightness,  in  view  of  ethical 
ideas.  But  all  ideas  are  intellectual  products.  Self,  as  will,  moved 
by  ethical  emotions,  chooses  right.  Confounding  conscience  with  its 
antecedents,  ethical  ideas,  and  its  consequents,  ethical  actions,  occa- 
sions endless  confusion.  Ethical  ideas,  ethical  emotions,  and  ethical 
actions  are  as  distinct  as  gold,  silver,  and  copper.  Because  emotions 
of  right  are  central,  conscience  is  often  used  to  include  its  antece- 
dents and  consequents.  But  the  psychologist  must  sharply  distm- 
guish  between  knowing  right,  feeling  right,  and  doing  right.  In  the 
light  of  intelligence,  we  feel  impulses  to  choose  and  do  what  we 
believe  to  be  right.     The  power  to  feel  oughtness  is  conscience. 

Ethical  Knowledge. — How  do  we  find  out  what  is 
right  ?     Precisely  as  we  find  out  what  is  true  in  botany. 


CONSCLENCE,  OR  THE  ETHICAL  EMOTIONS.  245 

The  moral  universe  is  an  objective  reality.     Into  this 
world  we  have  direct  insight. 

1.  Ethical  percepts.  Self,  as  noumenal  perception,  immediately 
knows  concrete  right.  You  observe  a  noble  woman  treating  kindly 
a  starving  old  man,  and  notice  his  deep  gratitude.  You  know  intui- 
tively that  the  act  of  kindness  and  the  act  of  gratitude  are  right. 
We  perceive  concrete  right. 

2.  Ethical  concepts.  We  think  ethical  percepts  into  ethical  con- 
cepts. We  perceive  many  acts  of  kindness  and  of  gratitude,  and  we 
know  directly  that  each  is  right.  We  discern  resemblances  and 
think  these  acts  into  groups.  This  group  of  kind  acts  becomes  kind- 
ness, and  this  group  of  grateful  acts  becomes  gratitude. 

3.  Ethical  judgments.  We  think  ethical  concepts  into  ethical 
judgments.  We  discern  agreement  between  the  notions  right  and 
gratitude,  and  say  gratitiide  is  right.  We  discern  incongruity  be- 
tween the  notions  right  and  ingratitude,  and  say  ingratitude  is 
wrong. 

4.  Ethical  laws.  We  discover  laws.  I  investigate  light.  1  find 
that  in  this  case  and  this,  its  intensity  varies  inversely  as  the  square 
of  the  distance.  As  nature  is  uniform,  I  find  that  I  have  discovered 
a  law  of  light.  So  in  ethics  I  perceive  that  honesty  is  right  in  this 
case  and  this.  I  find  that  honesty  tends  to  the  general  good,  and 
that  men  everywhere  believe  that  they  ought  to  be  honest.  Moral 
as  well  as  physical  forces  are  constant.  I  have  discovered  a  moral 
law.  Ethical  knowing  is  purely  intellectual :  it  is  self,  as  intellect, 
investigating  the  moral  world. 

Conscience  is  not  a  Moral  Guide. — Self,  as  intellect, 
finds  out  what  is  right.  Self,  as  conscience,  feels  a 
strong  impulse  to  do  what  he  believes  to  be  right. 
Steam  impels  the  boat,  but  the  pilot  guides.  Con- 
science is  the  moral  impulsion  in  man,  but  intellect 
guides.  To  call  conscience  a  moral  judgment,  or  a  moral 
sense,  or  a  moral  guide,  tends  to  hopeless  confusion. 

Conscience  in  Literature. — A  crude  psychology  is 
imbedded  in  literature.  The  distinctions  between  in- 
tellect, emotions,  and  will,  are  not  always  clearly  dis- 


246       ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY  AND   EDUCATION. 

cerned.  A  blind  feeling  is  often  represented  as  intelli- 
gent. The  conception  of  a  faculty  as  an  ultimate  and 
inexplicable  endowment  of  the  soul,  as  a  simple  and 
distinct  capability,  is  modern.  Even  the  etymology  con^ 
with,  and  sciens^  knowing,  embodies,  as  I  think,  a  fun- 
damental error.  But  the  thoughtful  student  need  not 
be  misled.  Errors  wrought  into  human  thought  can  be 
removed  only  by  the  slow  processes  of  time  and  the 
leaven  of  truth.  However,  the  common  sense  of  the 
race  has  ever  been  right.  Conscience  to  the  masses  is 
simply  a  feeling  of  rightness.  "  It  was  an  error  of  the 
head  (intellect)  not  of  the  heart  (conscience),"  gives  the 
true  idea.  "  My  judgment  was  at  fault  but  my  inten- 
tions were  good,"  is  sound  psychology.  "Conscience 
doth  make  cowards  of  us  all,"  and  "  The  righteous  are 
bold  as  a  lion,"  give  the  correct  meaning. 

Intentions  and  Conscience. — Intentions  are  purposes. 
What  were  your  intentions  ?  Self,  as  consciousness, 
perceives  his  intentions.  We  can  not  be  mistaken  as  to 
our  intentions. 

1 .  Good  intentions  are  purposes  to  do  what  we  be- 
lieve to  be  right.  When  we  act  with  good  intentions 
w^e  act  conscientiously.  Paul  believed  he  ought  to  per- 
secute the  Christians.  He  did  it  "in  all  good  con- 
science," for  his  intentions  were  good. 

2.  Bad  intentions  are  pui-poses  to  do  what  we  be- 
lieve to  be  wrong.  When  we  act  with  bad  intentions 
we  act  unconscientiously.  Judas  knew  that  it  was  wrong 
to  betray  Christ.  He  acted  unconscientiously,  for  his 
intentions  were  bad.  I  know  always  with  absolute  cer- 
tainty whether  my  intentions  are  good  or  bad.  It  is 
the  certainty  as  to  good  intentions  that  makes  the  right- 


CONSCIENCE,  OR  THE  ETHICAL  EMOTIONS.  247 

eons  bold  as  a  lion.    One  man  with  good  intentions  shall 
chase  a  thousand. 

"  He  whose  cause  is  just  is  trebly  amied." 
It  is  the   certainty    as   to   bad  intentions    that   causes 
the  wicked  to  flee  from  shadows.     "  The  wicked  flee 
when  no  man  pursueth." 

Conscience  is  Infallible. — Every  one  is  liable  to  reach 
false  conclusions,  and  to  consider  the  right  wrong,  or 
the  wrong  right.  But  conscience,  as  invariably  as  the 
needle  points  to  the  pole,  moves  us  to  choose  and  do 
what  we  deem  the  right.  The  good  man  is  a  conscien- 
tious man.  A  conscientious  man  habitually  does  what 
he  believes  to  be  right.  A  bad  man  is  one  who  habitu- 
ally chooses  and  does  what  he  believes  to  be  wrong. 
Conscience  is  not  a  guide  ;  intellect  guides.  Conscience 
is  the  infallible  impulse  to  do  what  we  consider  right. 

Must  we,  then,  always  obey  our  consciences  ?  Cer- 
tainly. Conscience  moves  us  to  search  for  right  with 
aU  our  powers.  Conscience  never  fails  to  move  us  to 
do  what  we  consider  right.     We  must  obey. 

Intnitive  Ethical  Ideas. — The  moral  universe  is  as 
real  as  the  physical.  Moral  agents,  moral  phenomena, 
moral  laws,  moral  obligations,  and  moral  responsibilities, 
are  objective  realities.  We  are  endowed  with  the 
power  of  direct  insight  into  the  ethical  world.  Moral 
phenomena  are  what  is  right  or  wrong  in  conduct. 

Self  stands  face  to  face  with  ethical  phenomena,  and 
immediately  perceives  necessary  ethical  ideas.  Take 
the  actions  of  the  Good  Samaritan  and  the  Levite  as 
an  object  lesson.  Here,  right  and  wrong  are  acted. 
By  direct  insight,  you  gain  the  concrete  ideas,  right, 
ought,  merit,  and  their  opposites.     Concrete  right  and 


248       ELEMENTARY     PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

wrong  are  ethical  phenomena.  I  need  not  prove  to  you 
that  the  Levite  did  wrong,  or  that  tlie  Good  Samaritan 
did  right;  you  know  it  intuitively.  This  right  and 
this  wTong  are  ethical  percepts.  Concrete  ought  and 
ought  not  are  ethical  intuitions.  You  know  at  once 
that  the  Good  Samaritan  ought  to  have  acted  as  he  did, 
and  that  the  Levite  ought  not  to  have  acted  as  he 
did.  The  ideas  this  ought  and  this  ought  not  are  ethi- 
cal percepts.  Concrete  merit  and  demerit  are  ethical 
intuitions.  A  big  boy  strikes  his  kind  mother.  Even 
the  little  child  cries  "  Shame ! "  and  intuitively  blames 
the  unnatural  son.  You  know  at  once  that  the  Good 
Samaritan  merited  praise  while  the  Levite  deserved 
blame.  The  ideas  this  merit  and  this  demerit  are  ethi- 
cal percepts. 

Intuitive  Ethical  Truths. — Necessary  inferences  from 
necessary  ideas  may  be  called  intuitive  truths.  The 
axioms  of  ethics,  like  the  axioms  of  mathematics,  are 
intuitive  truths.  We  venture  to  submit  the  following 
statements : 

1.  Moral  law.  The  uniform  ways  in  which  moral  forces  act  are 
called  moral  laws.  As  physical  phenomena  occur  uniformly,  in  the 
same  way,  we  infer  that  physical  law  reigns  in  the  physical  world. 
As  moral  phenomena  are  uniform  in  all  lands  at  all  times,  we  infer 
the  reign  of  moral  law  in  the  moral  world. 

2.  Author  of  law.  From  the  existence  of  right  and  laws  of 
right,  we  infer  a  law-giver.  After  half  a  century  of  philosophic  re- 
search, Herbert  Spencer  gives  his  final  summary :  "  Amid  all  mys- 
teries, there  remains  the  one  absolute  certainty — we  are  ever  in  the 
presence  of  the  infinite  a7id  eternal  energy,  from  whom  all  things 
proceed."  Mr.  Spencer  voices  the  conclusion  of  all  thinkers.  In  the 
same  way  we  reach  moral  certainty.  Moral  law  necessitates  a  moral 
law-giver. 

3.  Law  and  its  author  are  beyond  and  superior  to  self.    This 


CONSCIENCE,   OR  THE   ETHICAL  EMOTIONS.  249 

inference  seems  to  be  unavoidable.     We  are  subjects  of  law.    Law 
reigns  within  and  around  us.     Obedience  to  law  works  our  good. 

4.  Self  is  responsible  to  law  and  its  author.  We  are  capable 
and  free.  Law  is  the  rule  of  right,  and  works  for  our  good.  We 
are  under  obligations  to  obey  law.  As  we  are  capable  and  free,  we 
are  responsible  for  our  acts.    Morality  is  thus  based  on  the  rock. 

Laws  of  Conscience.  —The  mental  energy  which 
prompts  the  choosing  and  doing  of  what  we  deem  right 
is  called  conscience.  The  nniform  ways  in  which  this 
energy  acts  may  be  called  the  laws  of  conscience.  We 
submit  a  few  examples : 

1.  Conscience  works  in  the  light  of  intelligence.  Ethical  emo- 
tions are  agitations  and  impulses  occasioned  by  ideas  of  right.  In 
the  absence  of  ethical  knowledge,  ethical  emotions  are  impossible.  Ab 
the  brute  has  no  ethical  ideas,  it  feels  no  ethical  impulses. 

2.  Conscience  invariably  moves  to  acts  believed  to  be  right.  Intel- 
lectually, it  is  human  to  err.  Mistakes  of  judgment  are  unavoidable. 
The  Hindoo  mother  believes  that  she  ought  to  sacrifice  her  child. 
Paul  believed  he  ought  to  persecute  Christians.  But  the  action  of 
gravity  is  not  more  constant  than  the  impulse  to  do  what  we  believe 
to  be  right. 

3.  Acting  conscientiously  strengthens  conscience.  Education  by 
doing  applies  to  the  ethical  emotions.  As  exercise  strengthens 
muscle,  and  remembering  strengthens  memory,  so  acting  conscien- 
tiously strengthens  conscience.  Moral  theories  and  moral  sermons 
may  help  or  hinder.  Only  habitually  doing  what  we  believe  to  be 
right  can  make  us  strong  to  do  right  and  resist  wrong. 

4.  Suppressing  ethical  emotions  weakens  conscience.  Doing 
what  we  believe  to  be  wrong  is  disregarding  or  suppressing  our 
emotions  of  right.  As  restraining  the  limbs  weakens  them,  so  dis- 
regarding conscience  tends  to  weaken  ethical  emotions. 

Growth  of  Conscience. — Very  early,  children  give 
indications  of  ethical  emotions.  When  child-experience 
involves  right  and  wrong,  concrete  right  is  perceived 
and  the  impulse  toward  right  felt.  But  the  egoistic 
emotions  and  the  physical  feelings  are  now  strong,  and 


250       ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY   AND   EDUCATION. 

largely  determine  child  action.  Conscience  moves  to 
the  right,  but  moves  feebly.  Year  by  year  the  ethical 
emotions  grow  stronger.  Do  right,  the  imperative  of 
conscience,  more  and  more  influences  action.  Later, 
the  ethical  emotions  begin  to  dominate  all  other  im- 
pulses. Now  the  child  has  become  a  conscientious 
moral  agent,  doing  the  right  because  it  is  right. 
Growth  of  conscience  is  indicated  by  the  wonderful 
changes  from  feeble  ethical  impulses  felt  by  the  child 
to  the  dominant  ethical  emotions  felt  by  the  conscien- 
tious man. 

"  The  conscience,"  says  Dr.  McCosh,  "grows  as  all  living  things 
do,  but  it  grows  from  a  germ.  The  faculties  of  the  mind,  like  the 
properties  of  a  body,  are  all  of  the  nature  of  tendencies.  There  are 
intellectual  tendencies  in  infants  and  savages,  but  they  need  to  be 
called  forth  and  ripened  by  light  and  by  heat  directed  toward  them. 
It  is  the  same  with  the  morai  power ;  it  is  in  all  men  native  and  ne- 
cessary, but  it  is  a  germ  requiring  to  be  evolved.  It  grows  as  the 
oak  grows.  As  the  tree  needs  earth  in  which  to  root  itself  and  air 
of  which  to  breathe,  so  the  conscience  needs  a  seat  in  our  mental 
sphere,  with  a  stimulus  to  make  it  germinate  and  expand.  When 
reared  in  a  bare  soil,  it  will  be  dwarfish.  When  exposed  to  cold  and 
blighting,  it  will  be  stunted  and  gnarled.  In  a  good  soil  and  a 
healthy  atmosphere,  it  will  be  upright  and  well-formed.  In  particu- 
lar, it  grows  and  spreads  out  with  the  intelligence  which  enables  it 
clearly  to  apprehend  facts  and  to  discover  the  consequences." 

Education  of  Conscience.* — Moral  theories  do  not 
make  moral  men,  nor  does  the  possession  of  a  conscience 
make  any  man  virtuous. 

1.  Right  doing  develops  conscience.  —  Habitually 
doing  what  one  believes  to  be  right  develops  the  moral 
faculty.  Intellectual  culture  does  not  necessarily  pro- 
mote   conscientiousness.     Indeed,   great    thinkers    are 

*  See  "  Education  of  Conscience,"  "  Applied  Psychology." 


CONSCIENCE,   OR  THE  ETHICAL  EMOTIONS.  251 

sometimes  monsters  of  depravity.  Bacon  was  desig- 
nated as  the  wisest  and  meanest  of  mankind.  He  knew 
the  way,  approved  it,  too,  but  still  pursued  the  wrong. 
Sermons  and  moral  lectures  are  good,  but  preachers' 
children  and  even  preachers  may  be  very  immoral. 
Acting  conscientiously  alone  educates  conscience. 

2.  Non-use  or  misuse  weakens  conscience.  One 
who  constantly  disregards  the  urgings  of  conscience 
will  have  a  weak  conscience.  Just  as  a  person  who 
seldom  recalls  his  experiences  will  have  a  weak  memory. 
Conscience,  as  an  impulse  to  right  and  a  restraint  from 
wrong,  becomes  weak,  becomes  seared,  because  un- 
heeded. Not  so  conscience  as  remorse.  Too  late, 
apathy  gives  place  to  this  dread  fiend.  Remorse 
comes  to  stay.  The  guilty  soul  agonizes  in  almost 
hopeless  despair.  "I  knew  my  duty,  but  did  it  not," 
touches  the  deepest  depths  of  human  woe. 

3.  Sowing  wild  oats.  In  the  light  of  history,  Froude 
says :  "  Remorse  may  disturb  the  slumbers  of  a  man 
who  is  dabbling  in  his  first  experience  of  wrong ;  and 
when  the  pleasure  has  once  been  tasted  and  is  gone, 
and  nothing  is  left  of  the  crime  but  the  ruin  which  it 
has  ^vrought,  then,  too,  the  Furies  take  their  seats  upon 
the  midnight  pillow.  But  the  meridian  of  evil  is,  for 
the  most  part,  left  unvexed,  and  when  a  man  has  chosen 
his  road,  he  is  left  alone  to  follow  it  to  the  end." 
"Would  you  lift  the  curtain  and  know  the  end  ?  Witness 
the  death-scene  of  Charles  IX  of  France.  Ponder  the 
fate  of  Jean  Yaljean.  Study  Macbeth  and  the  dream 
of  Clarence.  Ponder  the  miserable  end  of  a  Judas, 
an  Arnold,  a  Burr.     Remorse  is  a  sure  crop. 

4.  As  happiness  results  from  Ioajo  obeyed,  so  misery 

18 


252       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND   EDUCATION. 

follows  law  violated.  A  beggar  on  good  terms  with 
his  conscience  is  infinitely  better  oli"  than  the  guilty 
millionaire  or  wicked  king.  As  you  sow,  so  shall  you 
reap.  All  human  experience  verifies  this  truth.  "  A 
man's  character  is  but  the  stamp  upon  his  soul  of  the 
free  choice  of  good  or  evil  through  life."  "  Sow  acts, 
you  reap  habits ;  sow  habits,  you  reap  character ;  sow 
character,  you  reap  destiny." 

5.  Train  up  the  child  in  the  way  it  should  go. 
"Before  knowledge  place  culture,  and  before  culture 
place  character."  Keep  the  children's  faces  toward  the 
light ;  keep  their  hearts  open  to  the  truth ;  keep  them 
doing,  ever  doing,  right  things,  and  let  the  wrong  se- 
verely alone.  Wrong  is  never  so  distinctly  compre- 
hended as  when  purity  shines  upon  it  from  the  depths 
of  a  truth-loving  heart.  Never  allow  a  child  to  think 
a  wrong  thing  or  form  a  wrong  ideal,  if  it  is  possible  to 
prevent  it.  Lead  children  to  spend  their  precious  time 
in  doing  right. 

"  Happy  are  they  who  hunger  and  thirst  after  right- 
eousness." Let  beatitudes  take  the  place  of  curses ;  let 
the  eternal  do  take  the  place  of  the  everlasting  "  donutP 

SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

Eeview. — You  may  ascend  the  pyramid,  defining  and  giving 
the  office  of  each  mental  power  until  you  reach  conscience. 

What  is  meant  by  conscience  f  Why  are  our  feelings  in  the 
presence  of  right  called  ethical  emotions?  emotions  of  right?  emo- 
tions of  good  ?  duty  emotions  ?  conscience  ? 

Analyze  three  acts  of  conscience.  When  you  feel  ought  or  ought 
not,  is  it  an  act  of  conscience  ?  Tell  the  story  of  Reed ;  of  Washing- 
ton ;  etc.,  etc. 

State  the  office  of  conscience.  Name  the  three  imperatives  of 
conscience.     Give  two  example,':  of  each. 


CONSCIENCE,   OR   THE  ETUICAL   EMOTIONS.  253 

Mention  the  first  characteristic  of  conscience;  the  second; 
third.     Give  two  examples  of  each. 

Give  authors  definition  of  conscience;  your  definition;  defini- 
tion of  Dr.  John,  etc.     Criticise  definition  of  Bascom. 

What  are  the  antecedents  of  acts  of  conscience  ?  Consequents  f 
Is  conscience  knowing  right,  feeling  right,  or  doing  right  ? 

How  do  you  find  out  what  is  right  ?  How  do  we  get  ethical 
percepts?  ethical  judgments?  ethical  laws?  Give  an  example  of 
each.     Show  that  ethical  knowing  is  purely  intellectual. 

Show  that  conscience  is  not  a  moral  guide.  Illustrate.  What 
powers  guide  us  ? 

Give  the  etymology  of  conscience.  Does  this  give  the  correct 
idea?  Is  conscience  always  correctly  used  in  literature?  Has  the 
common  sense  of  the  race  been  correct  on  this  as  on  most  subjects  ? 

What  do  you  mean  by  intention  ?  How  does  conscience  make 
cowards?  . 

What  do  you  mean  by  fallible?  infallible?  Is  self  as  judg- 
ment fallible  or  infallible?  Is  conscience  fallible  or  infallible?  Il- 
lustrate by  the  magnetic  needle.  What  do  you  mean  by  a  good 
man  ?  a  bad  man  ?    Must  we  always  obey  conscience  ? 

How  do  we  gain  concrete  ethical  ideas  ?  Give  five  examples. 
What  are  moral  phenomena  ?  Do  we  have  direct  insight  into  the  mor- 
al world  ?  Illustrate  by  the  good  Samaritan.  Show  how  we  gain  the 
concrete  ideas — ought,  ought  not,  merit,  demerit,  praise,  blame,  eic 

Analysis  of  Chapter  XXIV. 

I.  Pfames, 

Conscience.  The  ethical  emotions. 

The  emotions  of  oonscienoe.       The  emotions  of  right? 

The  emotions  of  good.  The  duty  emotions. 

II.  Actf  of  Conscience  Analyzed. 

A  right  act.  A  wrong  act. 

XXL  Office  of  Conscience. 

1.  Find  out  right.  2.  Choose  and  do  right 

3.  Get  right  and  keep  right. 
IV.  Characteristics  of  Conscience* 

Ethical  emotions  occasioned  by  right. 

Ethical  emotions  imperative. 

Ethical  emotions  dominant. 


254       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


V.  Conscience  Defined. 

1.  Author's  definition. 
3.  Various  definitions. 

VL   Ethical  Knowledge. 

1.  Ethical  percepts. 
3.  Ethical  judgments. 

YII.  Intentions. 

1.  Good  intentions. 


vin. 


IX. 


XI. 


XII. 


XIII. 


Conscience  Infallible* 

1.  An  infallible  impulse. 
3.  A  bad  man. 

Intuitive  Ethical  Ideas* 

1.  Right  and  wrong. 
3.  Merit  and  demerit. 

Intuitive  Ethical  Truths. 

1.  The  reign  of  moral  law. 
3.  Law  superior  to  self. 


2.  Original  definition. 


2.  Ethical  concepts. 
4.  Ethical  laws. 


2.  Bad  intentions. 
2.  A  good  man. 


2.  Ought  and  ought-not. 
4.  Responsibility  and 
irresponsibility. 

2.  Author  of  law. 

4.  SeK  responsible  to  law. 


Laws  of  Conscience. 

1.  Conscience  works  in  the  light. 

2.  Conscience  always  moves  to  duty. 

3.  Conscience  is  strengthened  by  doing  right. 

4.  Conscience  is  weakened  by  doing  wrong. 

Growth  of  Conscience. 

1.  Feeble  in  children. 
3.  Dominates  in  youth. 

Education  of  Conscience. 

1.  Right  doing. 

3.  Sowing  wild  oats. 

5.  Keep  the  face  to  the  light. 


2.  Gradually  gains  power. 
4.  McCosh's  views. 


2.  Non-use. 
4.  Happiness. 


THE  EMOTIONS— GENERAL  VIEW.        255 

CHAPTEK  XXY. 

THE   EMOTIONS GENERAL    VIEW. 

Emotions  are  strung  on  ideas  as  genis  on  golden 
cords.  Emotions  are  feelings  occasioned  by  knowledge. 
The  golden  sunset,  the  song  of  birds,  and  the  fragrant 
flowers,  as  they  come  to  us  in  waves  of  light  and  sound 
and  odor,  thrill  us  with  pleasure.  As  we  explore  na- 
ture and  life,  science,  biography  and  literature,  the  en- 
tire key-board  of  our  emotional  nature  responds,  and 
moves  us  to  act  well  our  parts.  We  feel  while  we 
know,  and  will  while  we  feel. 

r  1.  Perceptive  Knowledge. 
(  1.  Knowledge. —  -l  2.  Representative  Knowledge. 
Order. —  -j  2.  Emotion.  (.  3.  Thought  Knowledge. 

(  3.  Will. 


The  emotions  are  the  capabilities  of  self  to  feel  in 
view  of  ideas.  The  feelings  occasioned  by  knowing  are 
termed  emotions.  The  capabilities  to  feel  in  view  of 
knowing  are  by  some  called  the  inteUectual  feelings. 
"  The  heart  powers "  is  the  expression  of  the  masses. 
The  head  with  them  means  the  intellect ;  and  the 
heart,  the  emotions.  Formerly,  heart  was  often  used 
in  the  sense  of  mind ;  now  it  is  used  to  include  our 
emotional  powers,  and  is  often  restricted  to  our  affec- 
tions. The  emotions — the  powers  to  feel  in  view  of 
knowing — is  every  way  the  preferable  name. 

(  The  Emotions. 
VamM.—  -!  The  Intellectual  Feelings. 
(  The  Heart  Powers. 


The  Emotions.- 


25  G       ELEMENTARY  TSYCHOLOGY  AXD  EDUCATION. 

Mind  as  emotion  moves  outward.  Some  feelings 
look  to  self,  and  hence  are  called  egoistic  emotions. 
Some  feelings  are  termed  altruistic  emotions,  because 
the  J  look  to  others.  But  the  feelings  that  look  to  the 
truth  world,  the  beauty  world,  and  the  duty  world,  are 
called  cosmic  emotions.  "When  an  emotion  arises  from 
contemplating  the  past,  it  is  termed  a  retrospective  emo- 
tion. A  present  emotion  is  called  an  imm^ediate  emo- 
tion, but  a  feeling  occasioned  by  contemplating  the 
future  is  termed  di prospective  emotion.  We  thus  reach  a 
satisfactory  and  convenient  classification  of  the  emotions. 

Retrospective. 

1.  The  Egoistic  Emotions. —   -<(  Immediate. 

Prospective. 
Retrospective. 

2.  The  Altruistic  Emotions. —  •{  Immediate. 

Prospective. 
Retrospective, 

3.  The    Cosmic    Emotions. —  •{  Immediate. 

Prospective. 

The  egoistic  em^otions  are  our  powers  to  feel  in 
view  of  self  The  feelings  occasioned  by  ideas  pertain- 
ing to  self  are  called  egoistic  emotions.  The  power  to 
feel  and  the  feeling  are  as  distinct  as  perception  and 
perceiving.  Personal  emotions  means  emotions  pertain- 
ing to  the  person.  Self  emotions  and  egoistic  emotions 
better  express  the  meaning.  As  these  emotions  arise 
from  contemplating  self  with  reference  to  the  past,  the 
present,  or  the  future,  they  are  called  retrospective,  im- 
mediate, and  prospective  emotions. 


(  The  Egoistic  Emotions.    \     (  Retrospective. 
Karnes. —  •<   The  Self  Emotions.  v    -<  Immediate. 

(  The  Personal  Emotions.  )     (  Prospective. 


THE  EMOTIONS— GENERAL  VIEW. 


257 


The  altruistic  emotions  are  powers  to  feel  in  vievj 
of  others.  The  feelings  occasioned  by  ideas  pertain- 
ing to  others  are  termed  altruistic  emotions.  When  we 
feel  for  and  with  others,  these  feelings  are  called  sym- 
pathies, affections,  benevolent  emotions,  love,  etc. ;  but 
when  we  feel  away  from  and  against  others,  they  are 
termed  antipathies,  disaffections,  malevolent  emotions, 
hate,  etc. 


Hames.- 


^  Altruistic  Emotions. 

Sympathies  and  Antipathies. 
.    Affections  and  Disaffections. 
j    Benevolent  and  Malevolent  Emo- 
tions. 
I    Love  and  Hate. 


>■■< 


Retrospective. 
Immediate. 
^  Prospective. 


TJte  cosmic  emotions  are  our  powers  to  feel  in  view 
of  the  true,  the  heautiful,  and  the  good.  These  feel- 
ings arq  termed  cosmic  emotions.  Because  they  are 
limited  to  rational  beings,  they  are  named  rational  emo- 
tions. As  they  are  occasioned  primarily  by  noumenal 
percepts,  they  may  be  called  noumenal  emotions.  Some 
name  these  feelings  spiritual  emotions  and  higher  emo- 
tions, because  of  their  tendency  to  exalt  the  soul.  Self 
as  cosmic  emotion  goes  out  to  the  universe.  These  feel- 
ings are  as  boundless  as  the  universe  and  eternity.  Cos- 
mic emotion  seems  to  express  the  exact  meaning. 

'^  Retrospective. 


C  T]?e  Cosmic  Emotions. 
The  Rational  Emotions. 

Karnes. {    The  Spiritual  Emotions. 

The  Noumenal  Emotions. 
The  Higher  Emotions. 


it 


Immediate. 


Prospective. 


The  cosmic  emotions  are  occasioned  by  cosmic  knatn- 
ing.     Self,  as  noumenal-perception,  has  immediate  in- 


258       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

sight  into  the  truth  world,  the  beauty  world,  and  the 
dutj  world.  We  know  intuitively,  in  their  concrete 
forms,  the  true,  the  beautiful,  and  the  good.  But  self 
as  reason  finds  out  what  is  true,  what  is  beautiful,  what 
is  right.  In  the  presence  of  truth  we  feel  truth  emo- 
tions. In  the  presence  of  beauty  we  feel  beauty  emo- 
tions.    In  the  presence  of  right  we  feel  duty  emotions. 


The  Knowledge  Emotions,  or  Truth  Emotions. 
The  Esthetic  Emotions,  or  Beauty  Emotions. 
The  Ethical  Emotions,  or  Duty  Emotions. 


Physiology  of  the  emotions.  The  soul  is  embodied 
in  an  organism.  The  interaction  between  mind  and 
body  is  wonderful.  Study  that  expressive  face  under 
the  play  of  diverse  emotions.  How  joy  lights  up  the 
countentoce  !     How  grief  drapes  the  face  in  gloom. 

"  When  ideas  are  of  objects  appetible  or  inappetible  thpy  stir  up 
emotion.  We  have  a  glimpse  of  the  way  in  which  the  feelings  work 
in  the  brain.  The  idea  which  evokes  the  feeling,  and  is  its  sub- 
stratum, works  in  the  cerebrum ;  and  the  excitement  produced,  like 
the  original  sensation,  may  be  partly  mental  and  partly  bodily — the 
bodily  excitement  often  rising  to  movements  in  changes  of  color,  in 
paleness  and  redness  of  countenance,  in  blushing  and  in  trembling, 
in  laughter  and  in  tears.  It  is  the  office  of  psychology  to  unfold  the 
emotions  ;  it  is  the  business  of  physiology  to  trace  the  bodily  affec- 
tions from  the  brain  downward  to  the  nerves  and  fibers."  * 

The  Human  Temperaments. f — "  The  temperaments  are  formed 
by  the  proportion  of  those  elements  that  enter  into  the  bodily  struct- 
ure, causing  the  diversities  in  shape,  form,  and  mental  characteris- 
tics that  we  observe;  and  whether  we  employ  the  words  'lymphatic, 
sanguine,  bilious,  and  nervous,' or  'vital,  motive,  and  mental,'  to 
denote  the  bodily  constitution  of  individuals,  these  terms  correspond 

*  McCosh. 

t  Superintendent  J.  M.  Greenwood  in  "  Principles  of  Education  Practi- 
cally Applied." 


THE  EMOTIONS— GENTIRAL  VIEW.  259 

to  those  real  distinctions  which  prompt  the  possessor  to  move  or  act 
in  a  certain  direction.  The  mind  is  a  unit;  it  manifests  its  activity 
in  various  directions.  A  distinct  kind  of  mind  activity  is  called  a 
faculty  of  the  mind  ;  consequently,  there  are  as  many  faculties  of 
the  mind  as  it  has  distinct  kinds  of  activity.  In  like  manner,  the 
body  is  one  organism,  constructed  upon  temperamental  conditions. 
The  manner  of  their  combination  produces  tendencies  either  to  men- 
tal activity  or  to  sluggishness,  causing  all  those  variations  in  human 
nature  that  we  observe.  When  the  intellect,  sensibility,  or  will  pre- 
vails, there  is  found  a  corresponding  temperamental  development 
which  exerts  a  controlling  influence,  and  shapes  and  colors  the  whole 
character  of  the  possessor.  He  lives  and  acts  in  harmony  with  his 
nature.  Teachers  furnished  with  eyes,  ears,  good  sense,  and  an  in- 
clination to  study,  can  tell  what  tendencies  prevail  in  the  pupils 
they  are  called  upon  to  teach.  This  is  justly  regarded  as  the  key  to 
eminent  success." 

SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

Eeview. — Study  this  chapter  with  the  tree  (p.  56),  and  the  pyra- 
mid (p.  204),  and  the  diagrams  of  the  egoistic,  altruistic,  and  cosmic 
emotions  before  you. 

What  distinction  do  you  make  between  knowing  and  feeling  ? 
between  an  intellectual  power  and  an  emotion  ?  Illustrate.  Explain 
the  logical  order  of  mental  activity.  Do  we  feel  while  we  know  f 
Do  we  will  while  we  feel  ? 

Define  the  emotions.  Explain  the  names  given  to  these  capa- 
bilities.   Why  do  you  prefer  the  term  emotion  % 

Explain  the  classification  of  emotions.  Illustrate  retrospective, 
immediate,  and  prospective  emotions.  Define  the  egoistic  emotions. 
Explain  the  several  names  applied  to  these  feelings.  Are  these 
names  equally  expressive  ? 

Define  the  altruistic  emotions.  Explain  the  various  names 
given  to  these  feelings,  and  state  your  preference. 

Define  the  cosmic  emotions.  Why  do  you  prefer  this  to  the 
other  names  applied  to  these  feelings!  Name  the  groups  of  cosmic 
emotions.    Define  each.    What  do  you  mean  by  cosmic  knowledge  f 

Illustrate  the  physiology  of  the  emotions.  What  is  the  office 
of  psychology  f  of  physiology  t 


PART    VI. 
THE   WILL-POWERS. 


CHAPTER  XXVL— Attention. 
XXVII.— Action. 
XXVIIL— Choice. 
XXIX.— The  Will-Powers.— General  View. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  PYRAMID, 


=d       THE  WILL 


CHOICE. 

ACTION. 

ATTENTION. 


THE  COSMIC  EMOTIONS. 

THE  ALTRUISTIC  EMOTIONS. 

THE  EGOISTIC  EMOTIONS. 


THE 

PHYSICAL 

FEELINGS. 


THE  SPECIAL  SENSES* 

THE  GENERAL  SENSES. 

THE  APPETITES. 


HUMAN  INSTINCTS. 

COMMON  INSTINCTS. 

STRICTLY  BRUTE  INSTINCTS. 


THE 
THINKING 


REASON. 

JUDGMENT. 

CONCEPTION. 


REASONS. 

iJUDGMENTSil 

CONCEPTS. 


THE 
D   /REPRESENT^ 
O    I        ATIVE 

-J   j    POWERS. 


IMAGINATION. 
PHANTASY. 
MEMORY. 


IDEALS. 


■o 

O 

IPHANTASMS.1  C 

Q 

MEMORIES,  ' 


«/> 


THE 

[PERCEPTIVE/ 

POWERS. 


NOUMENAL-PERCEPTION. 

CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION. 

SENSE-PERCEPTION. 


NOUMENAL- 
PERCEPTS. 

iCONSCIOUS-1 
PERCEPTS. 

SENSE- 
PERCEPTS. 


SIXTH   PART. 

THE    WILL-POWERS, 


By  these  we  mean  our  cajpahilities  to  attend^  deter- 
mine^ and  act.  Will  is  the  power  to  make  intentional 
efforts.  Knowing,  feeling,  willing  is  the  logical  order 
of  soul  activity ;  hence  we  place  at  the  summit  of  the 
psychological  pyramid  the  will-powers. 


8.  THE   WILUPOWERS. 


2.  THE   EMOTIONS. 


1.  THE   COGNITIVE    POWERS. 


Knowing  occasions  emotion ;  emotion  occasions 
choice  and  action.  The  telegram  states  that  your 
brother  is  dying ;  you  are  grieved  to  the  heart ;  you 
hasten  to  soothe  him  in  his  dying  hour. 


-{? 


3.  Action. 
The  Will-Powers.—  \  2.  Choice. 

Attention. 


You  concentrate  your  powers  on  the  geometry  les- 
son; self,  as  attention^  concentrates  his  efforts.  You 
determine  to  spend  vacation  in  California;  self,  as 
choice^  determines.     You  execute  your  plan ;  self,  as 


264       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY   AND   EDUCATION. 

action^  executes  his  determinations.  Because  choice  is 
the  pre-eminent  will-power,  we  place  it  as  the  cap-stone 
of  the  psychological  pyramid. 

Will,  Emotion,  Intellect. — Will  is  mind  in  liberty. 
Voluntary  acts  are  intentional  acts.  We  are  endowed 
with  capabilities  to  form  and  execute  plans.  Libarty, 
intention,  and  volition  are  the  characteristics  of  will, 
and  distinguish  the  will-powers  from  the  emotions  and 
the  intellect. 


CHAPTEK  XXYI. 

ATTENTION.* 

By  attention  is  meant  the  power  to  concentrate  our 
efforts.  Self,  as  attention,  concentrates  his  efforts,  pro- 
longs his  efforts,  and  changes  his  efforts.  Like  con- 
sciousness and  memory,  attention  in  some  degree  enters 
into  all  distinct  mental  activity.  What  the  will  can  do 
is  to  iix  the  attention. 

1.  Self,  as  attention,  concentrates  effort. — As  we  can,  under  an 
adequate  motive,  observe  one  point  in  the  scene  before  us  and  ne- 
glect everything  else ;  as  we  can  single  out  one  sound  and  be  deaf 
•  to  the  general  hum ;  as  we  can  apply  ourselves  to  the  appreciation 

of  one  flavor  in  the  midst  of  many,  or  be  aware  of  a  pressure  on  a 
particular  part  of  the  body  to  the  neglect  of  the  rest — so  in  mental 
attention  we  can  fix  one  idea  firmly  in  the  view,  while  others  are 
coming  and  going  unheeded. 

2.  Attention  is  characteristic  of  cultivated  minds.  —  In  the 
uneducated  and  badly  educated  it  is  more  or  less  wanting.  The 
power  of  giving  the  whole  of  the  mind  to  any  subject  or  work,  what- 

*  Ke-examine  Chapter  I;  also,  see  "Education  of  Attention,"  "Ap- 
plied Psychology." 


ATTENTION.  265 

ever  be  its  nature,  without  permitting  it  to  wander,  is  not  common, 
and  where  it  does  exist  it  is  usually  the  result  of  severe  discipline. 
The  mind,  while  it  is  the  most  active  agent  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted, is  also  one  of  the  laziest.  Not  lazy  through  idleness,  but 
because  it  shirks.  It  loves  to  remember,  for  remembering  is  not 
work.  It  loves  to  form  phantasms,  for  phantasy  is  sport,  day-dream- 
ing is  pleasant.  It  loves  reverie.  It  does  not  love  to  think,  for 
thinking  is  work.  Whoever  has  taught  children  and  observed  their 
ways  closely  has  a  thousand  proofs  of  this.  Place  a  spelling-book  in 
the  hand  of  a  little  boy  and  watch  him.  Nine  times  out  of  ten  he 
will  try  to  learn  his  task  by  going  over  it  a  great  many  times.  The 
mind  is  shirking,  for  the  mind  does  not  work  that  way.  It  is  his 
mental  effort  to  get  the  lesson  without  fixing  his  whole  attention. 
He  is  trying  to  substitute  a  great  deal  of  mechanical  repetition  for 
a  little  hearty  mental  labor.  The  whole  power  of  his  mind  is  never 
absorbed  in  his  task.  When  the  mind  is  fully  at  work,  when  the 
whole  power  of  attention  is  aroused,  it  always  does  one  thing  at  a 
time.    This  is  a  foundation  or  beginning  principle  in  education. 

3.  Much  noveWeading  is  mental  shirking.  This 
is  true  as  a  rule.  The  novel-reader  drifts,  not  think- 
ing or  even  imagining;  self  seems  to  be  little  more 
than  emotion  and  phantasy.  An  excessive  novel-reader 
becomes  incapable  of  concentrated  and  prolonged  ef- 
fort. Though  a  woman  in  years,  she  may  be  a  child 
mentally.  Only  the  concrete  and  emotional  interest 
her.  She  is  incapable  of  solid  reading,  or  penetrating, 
abstract  study.     She  is  a  human  butterfly. 

4.  Attention  can  he  educated.  Education  must  ac- 
custom the  learner  to  an  exact,  rapid,  and  many-sided 
attention,  so  that  at  the  first  contact  with  an  object  he 
may  grasp  it  sufficiently  and  truly,  and  that  it  shall  not 
be  necessary  for  him  always  to  be  changing  his  impres- 
sions concerning  it.  {The  treatment  of  Attention  in 
Chapter  I  is  considered  sufficiently  extended  for  an 
elementary  work. 


266       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

CHAPTEE  xxyn. 

ACTION,    OK   EXECUTIVE   VOLITION. 

Self  does  things — acts.  Action  engages  full  half 
our  mental  energies.  Self,  as  action,  executes  his 
determinations,  and  thus  makes  ideals  actuals.  The 
capabiKty  to  carry  impulse  or  determination  into  action 
is  called  executive  volition,  or  action.  In  general,  action 
includes  all  efforts  of  body  and  soul ;  but  the  term  is 
here  used  in  the  sense  of  executive  volition.  Action 
is  the  power  of  self  to  execute  his  determinations. 

i  Action. 
Executive  Volition. 
Executive  Power. 
Volition. 

Acts  of  Executive  Volition  analyzed. — Charles,  on  his  way  to 
school,  met  Robert,  who  begged  for  his  company  for  a  hunt.  Charles 
desired  to  enjoy  the  sport,  and  his  impulse  was  to  go ;  but  he  de- 
liberated, weighing  the  pleasures  of  the  hunt  against  the  benefits  of 
the  school,  and  the  painful  consequences  of  playing  truant.  After 
a  few  moments  he  decided  to  go  on  to  school.  Without  a  moment's 
delay,  he  acted — executed  his  choice — and  proceeded  on  his  way  to 
school. 

I  know  that  my  neighbor  is  in  need.  Shall  I  administer  to  his 
wants  ?  I  fix  my  mind  upon  the  question — I  attend.  •Indifference 
and  avarice  move  me  to  leave  the  matter  to  others.  The  grudge  I 
have  against  the  needy  one  moves  me  to  let  him  suffer.  Conscience 
strongly  moves  me  to  go  to  his  relief.  In  view  of  these  conflicting 
urgings,  I  make  up  my  mind  to  help  my  neighbor — I  choose.  I 
now  direct  my  efforts  to  devising  ways  and  means  to  execute  my  de- 
termination and  form  a  plan.  Next  I  execute  my  plan,  administer- 
ing to  my  neighbor's  wants — I  act.  You  readily  perceive  in  these 
simple  acts  the  distinctive  work  of  each  of  the  three  will-powers. 


ACTIOX,   OR  EXECUTIVE   VOLITIOX.  267 

Office  of  Executive  Volition. — We  are  endowed  with 
the  capability  to  do  things  intentionally.  Brutes  exe- 
cute their  impulses  ;  men  execute  their  determinations. 
In  the  mental  economy  the  office  of  executive  volition 
is  to  carry  choice  into  action ;  as  when  you  spend  the 
evening  with  your  sick  friend  instead  of  going  to  the 
theatre. 

Impulsive  Action. — Only  deliberative  acts  are  rational.  When 
impulse  is  carried  directly  into  action  it  is  called  impulsive  action. 
A  large  proportion  of  human  as  well  as  brute  acts  are  of  this  kind. 
But  action,  as  here  used,  applies  to  intentional,  purposed,  delibera- 
tive acts. 

Characteristics  of  Action. — We  do  things  intention- 
ally, purposely,  deliberatively.  I  intentionally  pruned 
the  pear-tree.  I  purposely  took  a  walk.  I  deliberately 
signed  the  contract.  When  we  act  with  a  purpose,  the 
act  is  executive  volition. 

1.  Self,  as  action,  ca/rries  choice  into  execution.  A 
being  without  this  power  might  form  plans,  but  could 
not  carry  them  out.  The  engineer  might  plan  a  bridge, 
but  could  not  actualize  his  ideal. 

2.  Self,  as  action,  does  intentionally  and  freely 
what  he  does.  After  careful  deliberation  you  deter- 
mined to  become  a  student ;  now  you  intentionally  and 
freely  devote  yourself  to  student  work. 

Action  Defined. — You  are  conscious  of  power  to 
carry  out  your  plans.  The  capability  to  execute  plans 
is  termed  action.     Volition  is  self  acting. 

1.  Action  is  the  power  of  self  to  execute  his  determi- 
nations.  We  can  do  what  we  determine  to  do.  Voli- 
tion is  will  in  action. 

2.  Original  dejmition.     What  do  you   mean   by 

19 


268       ELEMEXTARY   PSYCHOLOGY  AND   EDUCATION. 

action  ?     Wi-ite  a  clear  definition  and  give  two  illustra- 
tions. 

3.  Various  Definitions. — 1.  Hazard:  Action  is  the  power  to 
make  effort.  2.  Brooks  :  Executive  volition  is  the  power  to  carry 
choice  into  action.  3.  Porter  :  Action  is  the  power  to  execute  pur- 
poses. 4.  Haven  :  Executive  volition  is  the  capability  to  put 
choice  into  action.  5.  Bain  :  Executive  volition  is  the  power  for 
purposed  action ;  the  tendency  to  put  forth  effort  is  inherent  in  our 
constitution. 

Kinds  of  Action. — An  act  may  be  mechanical,  impuL 
sive,  or  deliberative. 

1.  Reflex  action.  Such  acts  as  breathing,  winking, 
walking,  ordinarily  are  reflex  actions,  and  are  strictly 
physical.  The  acts  of  the  lower  orders  of  animals 
and  of  young  infants  are  almost  wholly  reflex. 

2.  Impulsive  action.  The  infant  is  attracted  by  the 
glittering  toy  and  tries  to  reach  it ;  there  is  no  delibera- 
tion,  no  choice,  but  simply  impulse  and  action.  The 
brute  feels,  and  carries  impulse  directly  into  action. 
There  is  no  deliberation,  no  rational  choice.  When  we 
act  from  impulse  and  without  purpose,  our  acts  are  im- 
pulsive acts.     Instinctive  action  is  impulsive  action. 

Simple  and  Complex  Impulses. — When  a  single  impulse  moves  to 
action,  the  action  is  termed  an  act  from  a  simple  impulse ;  but  when- 
two  or  more  conflicting  impulses  move  to  action,  the  action  is 
termed  an  act  from  complex  impulses.  In  all  cases  the  act  itself  is 
simple. 

1.  Acts  from  simple  impulses.  The  dog  wants  the  meat,  and  im- 
mediately seizes  it.  The  child  desires  the  flower,  and  immediately 
plucks  it.    These  are  simple  impulsive  acts. 

2.  Acts  from  conflicting  impulses.  The  dog  has  been  punished 
for  his  acts.  Now  dread  of  punishment  contends  with  a  craving 
for  the  meat.  Mother  has  told  the  child  not  to  pluck  certain 
flowers.    Now  the  little  one  wavers  between  the  desire  for  the 


ACTIOX,  OR  EXECUTIVE  VOLITION. 


269 


flowers  and  the  dread  of  its  mother's  disapproval.    The  acts  resulting 
are  from  conflicting  impulses,  but  the  acts  themselves  are  simple  acts. 

3.  Deliberative  or  rational  action.  Rational  be- 
ings deliberate  before  acting.  Impulse  is  subordinated 
to  reason.  Self,  as  reason,  weighs  the  considerations. 
In  view  of  all  the  reasons,  we  choose  and  act;  such 
action  is  rational  action.  This  is  the  meaning  of  action 
as  here  used. 

SENSORIUM  AND  MOTORIUM. 


SENSOR 
QANQL 


INTELLECTIVE 
QANQLIA. 


R  llJ  SENSOR  V   I    J  S 

lA.  \\\  NERVES.  r     I     I  O 


MOTOR 
QANQLIA. 


MOTOR 
NERVES. 


SENSOR 
RGANS. 


'SPECIAL.         QENERAL, 


EYES, 
EARS, 

NOSE, 

MOUTH, 

SKIN, 


K 


MOTOR 
ORQANS. 


Action  and  Motion.* — We  again  stand  face  to  face 
with  the  profound  mystery  of  interaction  between  mind 
and  matter.  We  know  that  self  as  sense-perception  is 
affected  by  matter,  and  that  self  as  will  affects  matter. 
Self  as  volition  excites  the  motor  ganglia.  The  motor 
excitation  passes  in  molecular  waves  through  the  motor 
nerves  to  the  muscles.  In  response  to  motor  excitation, 
the  muscles  contract  and  relax,  thus  producing  motion. 

*  See  pages  45  and  52. 


270       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

How  self  excites  the  motor  ganglia  is  to  us  an  insoluble 
mystery;  but,  like  all  similar  mysteries,  the  solution 
could  not  profit  us  now.     We  can  afford  to  wait. 

"  To  move  any  part  of  the  body  voluntarily  requires  the  follow- 
ing particulars:  (1)  The  possession  of  an  educated  reflex-motor 
mechanism,  under  the  control  of  those  higher  cerebral  centers  which 
are  most  immediately  connected  with  the  phenomena  of  conscious- 
ness ;  (2)  certain  motifs  in  the  form  of  conscious  feelings  that  have 
a  tone  of  pleasure  or  pain,  and  so  impel  the  mind  to  secure  such 
bodily  conditions  as  will  continue  or  increase  the  one  and  discon- 
tinue or  diminish  the  other ;  (3)  ideas  of  motions  and  positions  of 
the  bodily  members,  which  previous  experience  has  taught  us  answer 
more  or  less  perfectly  to  the  motifs  of  conscious  feeling  ;  (4)  a  con- 
scious Jiat  of  will,  settling  the  question,  as  it  were,  wliich  of  these 
ideas  shall  be  realized  in  the  motions  achieved  and  positions  attained 
by  these  members ;  (5)  a  central  nervous  mechanism,  which  serves 
as  the  organ  of  relation  between  this  act  of  will  and  the  discharge  of 
the  requisite  motor  impulses  along  their  nerve-tracts  to  the  groups 
of  muscles  peripherally  situated.  As  to  the  definite  nature  of  the 
physical  basis  which  underlies  the  connection  of  ideas  of  motion,  fiat 
of  will  adopting  one  idea,  and  the  starting  outward  of  the  right  mo- 
tor impulses,  our  ignorance  is  almost  complete.  Self,  as  will,  can 
issue  his  fiat,  but  can  do  nothing  more.  Science,  at  the  present,  can 
only  conjecture  what  then  takes  place."  * 

Language  and  Action. — In  its  broadest  sense,  lan- 
guage includes  all  communications  from  the  inner  to 
the  outer  world.  Motion  is  the  means  used.  Take 
away  motion  and  the  universe  becomes  silent  and  dumb. 

1.  Language  is  the  intentional  expression  of  cogni- 
tions^ feelings^  and  purjposes^  hy  means  of  motion. 
Self,  as  action,  utters  ideas,  emotions,  and  determinations 
by  signs,  by  sounds,  and  by  symbols. 

2.  Reflex  action  supplements  volition.  You  inten- 
tionally speak  to  your  friend ;  what  proportion  of  the 

*  G.  T.  Ladd,  "  Physiological  Psychology." 


ACTION,   OR  EXECUTIVE  VOLITION.  271 

movements*  are  reflex?  You  intentionallj  write  a 
letter;  how  much  of  the  action  is  reflex?  You  play 
and  sing ;  how  largely  are  the  movements  reflex  ?  You 
carve  a  Madonna ;  what  proportion  of  the  movements 
are  reflex  ?  Some  estimate  that  fully  nine  tenths  of  the 
movements  in  these  acts  are  strictly  reflex.  How  infi- 
nitely wonderful  are  speech  and  song  and  art  I 

3.  Music,  the  language  of  the  emotions,  is  a  thing 
of  motion.  Destroy  movement,  and  dead  silence  reigns. 
The  grand  strains  that  lift  us  up  and  inspire  us  are  pro- 
duced by  means  of  motion. 

Habit  and  Action. — Effort  of  body  or  mind  is  called  action.  By- 
habit  we  mean  acting  without  effort.  In  bodily  activity,  the  first 
steps  are  always  taken  with  consciousness,  which  is  often  painful  in 
its  intensity ;  but  by  repetition  the  same  acts  are  performed  with 
little  or  no  consciousness.  Walking,  to  a  baby,  is  a  solemn  act,  re- 
quiring its  whole  attention  ;  walking,  to  us,  is  automatic.  The  tyro 
in  music  or  in  the  crafts  is  awkward,  constrained,  and  intense  in  his 
attention  to  the  movements  of  his  work ;  the  master  is  intent  on  the 
end,  the  movements  being  made  with  the  minimum  of  consciousness. 
Indeed,  so  long  as  a  part  of  the  attention  is  necessarily  directed  to 
the  manner  of  doing,  the  work  will  be  imperfect. 

In  mental  processes  the  same  truth  holds.  Thinking,  in  any 
new  direction,  is  usually  slow  and  laborious,  but  with  practice  it 
moves  with  ever-increasing  freedom.  The  child,  in  adding,  pauses, 
hesitates,  and  thinks  at  each  step;  the  accountant  grasps  results 
with  mechanic-like  precision.  The  housewife  performs  her  cookery 
while  chatting  with  a  neighbor  upon  topics  foreign  to  the  occupa- 
tion, the  work  going  on  semi-automatically.* 

Growth  of  Action. — Movement,  in  some  form,  is  cer- 
tainly the  earliest  animal  activity.  At  firet  the  move- 
ments are  purely  reflex.  Very  early  the  infant  begins 
to  try  to  do  things.  Slowly  it  gains  a  mastery  over  the 
body.     The  helpless  babe  becomes  the  active,  graceful 

*  James  Johonnot. 


272       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

child.  Action  gives  pleasure.  "  Education  hy  doing  " 
is  based  on  the  intense  activity  of  this  faculty  during 
childhood  and  joutli. 

Education  of  Action.* — Intentional  effort  tends  to  de- 
velop executive  volition.  The  child  is  full  of  impulses 
to  action,  but  these  efforts  need  to  be  directed.  Well 
guided  action  is  an  important  feature  of  child  education. 

SUGGESTIVE   STUDY-HINTS. 

Review. — Carefully  ascend  the  pyramid.  Define  each  group  of 
faculties  and  state  the  office  of  each  faculty  in  the  group.  Define 
each  faculty  and  give  its  characteristics. 

What  do  we  mean  by  the  will-powers?  Distinguish  between 
intellect,  emotion,  and  will.    Illustrate. 

What  is  meant  by  attention  ?  Give  its  office  and  its  character- 
istics.    Illustrate  the  importance  of  educating  attention. 

What  do  we  mean  by  action  ?  Why  is  this  power  called  execu- 
tive volition  %    Analyze  a  voluntary  act. 

Give  the  office  of  action.  Illustrate  the  distinction  between 
impulsive  acts  and  determined  acts. 

State  the  characteristics  of  action.  What  do  you  mean  by  in- 
tentional action  ?    Illustrate. 

Give  author's  definition  of  action ;  your  definition ;  Hazard's ; 
Bain's. 

Explain  and  illustrate  reflex  action ;  impulsive  action ;  rational 
action.     In  what  sense  is  action  here  used  ? 

Show  that  the  soul  as  will  originates  motion.  Trace  motion 
from  the  inner  to  the  outer  world.     Explain  the  motorium  (see  p.  45). 

What  is  language  f  How  do  we  express  our  thoughts  ?  our  emo- 
tions? our  resolves'?  What  proportion  of  our  movements  is  reflex 
action  f 

Explain  habit  and  action.  Describe  the  growth  of  action.  How 
are  motives  related  to  rational  action  ? 

Letter. — You  will  take  time  to  prepare  a  well-digesteS  letter  to 
your  friend. 

*  See  "Education  of  Action,"  "Applied  Psychology." 


CHOICE. 


273 


Analysis  of  Chapter  XXVII. 

I.   Names. 

Action.  Executive  volition. 

Executive  power.  Volition. 

II.   Acts  of  Volition  Analyzed. 

Rational  acts.  Impulsive  acts. 

III.  Office  of  Action. 

Self  executes  choices.  Self  carries  impulse  into 

action. 

IV.  Characteristics  of  Action. 


1.  Is  voluntary. 

V.  Definitions  of  Action. 

Author's.         Original. 

VI.  Kinds  of  Action. 

1.  Reflex  action. 
3.  Rational  action. 

VII.   Impulsive  Acts. 

From  a  simple  motive. 

VIII.   Action  and  Motion. 

Mind  a  caicsa  sui. 

IX.  Development  of  Action. 

1.  Growth. 


2.  Is  intentional. 
Various  definitions. 
2.  Impulsive  action. 

From  conflicting  motives. 
The  motorium. 
2.  Education. 


CHAPTER  XXYin. 


CHOICE. 


By  this  is  mecmt  the  power  of  preference.  Shall  I 
upend  my  vacation  in  Europe  or  in  the  Yellowstone 
Park  ?  After  long  deliberation  I  finally  make  up  my 
mind  to  go   to  Europe.     1  prefer  visiting   the  Old 


274       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

"World.     I  choose  in  view  of  motives.     I  determine  to 
spend  mj  vacation  in  a  foreign  land. 

i  Power  of  Choice. 
Power  of  Preference. 
Power  of  Self-Determination. 
Will. 

I  am  rational,  benevolent,  free ;  I  am  a  person.  I 
am  endowed  with  the  power  of  self-determination ;  I 
am  a  sovereign.  I  can  prefer  one  thing  to  another;  I 
am  free  to  choose.  I  determine  for  myself ;  I  am  inde- 
pendent. I  originate  activity  ;  I  am  a  creative  first 
cause.  Because  I  am  endowed  with  the  capability  to 
choose,  I  am  a  man  and  not  a  brute.  Because  I  can  at 
will  originate  motion,  I  can  understand  the  universe. 

Acts  of  Choice  Analyzed. — What  is  choosing  ?  You 
carefully  scrutinize  some  of  your  own  acts  of  choice. 
What  mental  processes  precede  choice  ?  What  follow 
choice?  What  do  you  do  when  you  choose?  Now 
take  this  example :  Moses  chose  to  suffer  with  his  peo- 
ple rather  than  be  king.  Ambition  and  pleasure  con- 
tended with  duty,  but  Moses  did  not  hesitate.  With 
him  right  outweighed  kingdoms.  He  made  up  his 
mind  to  cast  in  his  lot  with  his  enslaved  people.  He 
preferred  duty  to  pleasure.  He  chose  to  suffer  for  the 
right  rather  than  rule  in  the  wrong.  You  find  that  his 
choice  was  occasioned  by  motives  or  reasons  for  choos- 
ing. You  find  that  his  determination  to  stand  by  his 
people  was  his  choice.  You  also  find  that  his  choice 
was  followed  by  action — a  life  devoted  to  the  good  of 
his  people.  You  will  be  profited  by  analyzing  the 
choice  of  Solomon,  of  Naomi,  etc. 

Office  of  Choice. — In  the  mental  economy,  self,  as 


CHOICE.  275 

clioice,  decides.  The  power  of  self-determination  is  the 
master  faculty  of  the  soul.  You  make  up  your  miud, 
you  determine,  you  choose. 

1.  Sdf^  ds  choice^  determines,  Washington  made 
up  his  mind  to  propose  to  Mrs.  Custis,  and  she  made  up 
her  mind  to  accept  him.  Making  up  your  mind,  decid- 
ing, determining,  and  choosing,  are  expressions  for  the 
same  mental  act. 

2.  Self^  as  choice^  originates  activity.  You  deter- 
mine to  take  a  walk.  Your  choice  starts  nerve-currents 
which  incite  muscular  action.  Napoleon  chose  to  stake 
his  fate  upon  a  single  battle,  and  many  thousand  soldiers 
fought  at  Waterloo. 

3.  Self^  as  choice^  prefers.  Clay  preferred  being 
right  to  being  President.  You  prefer  education  to 
riches.  The  patriot  exclaims,  "Give  me  hberty,  or 
give  me  death."     Choice  is  the  power  of  preference. 

Characteristics  of  Choice. — We  find  nothing  in  the 
material  world  with  which  to  compare  this  activity. 
Matter  is  passive ;  only  mind  is  endowed  with  sponta- 
neity. Choice  stands  alone,  and  man  is  the  only  terres- 
trial being  that  can  say  "  I  will." 

1.  Choice  is  uncaused  cause.  The  choice  is  made 
in  view  of  motives,  but  the  motive  is  the  reason  for 
choosing,  and  not  the  cause  of  the  choice.  I  determine 
to  build  a  house ;  the  choice  is  the  cause  of  the  build- 
ing, but  the  determination  to  build  is  occasioned  and 
not  caused.  The  power  to  originate  movement  is  called 
choice  or  will.  Take  away  this  power,  and  a  man 
ceases  to  be  a  person  and  becomes  a  mere  machine. 

2.  Avoidahility  cha/racteAzes  choice.  The  thief 
takes  my  horse,  but  he  could  have  done  differently. 


276       ELEMEXTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

Whatever  choice  I  make,  I  am  coDscious  that  I  could 
have  chosen  otherwise.  Avoidabilitj  characterizes 
choice.     I  am  responsible. 

3.  Self  is  free  to  choose.  Choice  is  mind  in  liberty. 
It  is  the  power  to  determine  as  one  pleases.  Liberty 
is  a  necessary  idea.  I  know  intuitively  that  I  am  free. 
Self,  as  choice,  is  unrestrained. 

Choice  Defined. — "  Choice  is  the  power  of  self  to  de- 
cide what  he  will  do."  "  Choice  is  the  capability  to 
initiate  acts."  "  Choice  is  the  power  of  preference  in 
view  of  motives."  "  Choice  is  the  power  of  spontane- 
ous determinat'on."  "Choice  is  mind  in  liberty." 
"  Choice  is  personal  cause."  "  Choice  is  the  capability 
to  elect  one  of  two  or  more  alternatives."  Here  we 
find  substantial  agreement.  Whatever  their  theories, 
thinkers  agree  as  to  the  office  of  choice,  and  view  with 
awe  this  marvelous  power.  All  men  know  what  it 
means,  yet  here  we  meet  the  profoundest  of  mysteries : 
man  is  a  creative  first  cause. 

1.  Choice  is  the  power  to  determine  in  view  of  mo- 
tives. 

2.  Original.     Construct  a  definition  of  your  own. 

3.  Various  Definitions. — 1.  Harris  :  Choice  is  the  power  of  self- 
determination.  2.  Bain:  Choice  is  the  capability  to  decide.  3. 
Bascom  :  Choice  is  the  power  to  close  deliberation  and  initiate  action. 
4.  Hazard  :  Choice  is  the  mental  energy  that  originates  motion. 

Motives  occasion  Choice. — Motives  are  incentives  to 
choice.  Ambition  incited  Macbeth  to  murder.  Mo- 
tives are  mere  considerations,  and  may  be  intensified 
or  weakened  at  will.  A  strong  motive  is  simply  a  pow- 
erful incentive  to  choice.  A  weak  motive  is  merely  a 
slight  incentive  to  choice.     The  soul,  as  choice,  is  sov- 


CHOICE.  277 

ereign ;  motives  incite,  but  are  subject  to  the  pleasure 
of  the  sovereigD.  Motives  are  reasons  for  choosing, 
but  choice  is  rational  self-determination  made  in  view 
of  motives.  I  make  up  my  mind  to  take  a  trip  to 
Europe.  My  motives  are  to  get  rest  and  to  behold  the 
wonders  of  the  Old  World. 

1.  Low  motives  are  incentives  to  gratify  the  appe- 
tites and  passions,  regardless  of  law.  Appetite  moves 
the  inebriate  to  drink  to  intoxication.  The  debauchee 
is  a  creature  who  is  a  willing  slave  to  his  appetites. 
In  him  the  low  motives  prevail. 

2.  High  motives  are  incentives  to  right  and  noble 
choices.  Conscience  ever  incites  us  to  choose  what  we 
consider  right.     Right  is  the  highest  of  all  motives. 

Choice — its  Antecedents  and  Consequents. — As  we 
have  advanced,  it  has  become  more  and  more  apparent 
that  the  soul  is  a  unit,  and  that  a  faculty  is  merely 
one  of  its  capabilities.  Rational  choice  involves  each 
capability  of  the  soul ;  wx  feel  while  we  know,  and  will 
while  we  feel. 

1.  Antecedents  of  choice.  Rational  beings  work  in 
the  light.  We  choose  in  view  of  motives.  (I)  Self,  as 
intellect,  evolves  and  weighs  motives.  A  motive  is  sim- 
ply a  reason  for  choosing.  Before  deciding  upon  a  plan 
of  work  of  great  moment,  you  tax  all  your  intellectual 
faculties  to  the  utmost.  (2)  Self,  as  emotion,  in  view 
of  ideas,  feels  impulses  to  choose.  Our  higher  emotions 
move  us  to  choose  the  true,  the  beautiful,  and  the 
good.  Our  appetites  and  passions  clamor  for  gratifica- 
tion regardless  of  law. 

2.  Choice,  Self,  as  choice,  decides  or  chooses,  and 
thus  ends  the  strife  of  contending  emotions.     Without 


278       ELEMENTARY    PSYCHOLOGY  AND   EDUCATION. 

intelligence,  rational  choice  is  impossible.  Without 
emotion,  we  should  never  choose.  Tlie  antecedents  of 
choic'c  are  knowing  and  feeling.  We  know,  we  feel, 
we  choose.  This  law  of  mental  succession  is  as  in- 
variable as  the  laws  of  gravity.  Ideas  occasion  emo- 
tions ;  ideas  and  emotions  occasion  choice. 

3.  Consequents  of  choice.  As  ideas  and  emotions 
lead  on  to  choice,  so  choice  leads  on  to  action.  We 
execute  our  determinations — we  act.  Rational  choice 
necessarily  precedes  rational  action.  Rational  acts  are 
consequents  of  rational  choice.  Cognition,  choice, 
action :  this  is  the  logical  as  well  as  the  chronological 
order  of  soul-activity. 

Choice  and  Motion. — The  correlation  of  energies  leads 
us  back  and  back  to  a  primary  energy — back  and  back  to 
the  primary  energy.  Reason  can  not  stop  short  of  the 
infinite  First  Cause.     Self,  as  will,  is  a  primary  energy. 

1.  Self^  as  choice^  initiates  motion.  Matter  is  neces- 
sarily passive ;  only  mind  is  self-acting.  I  determine  to 
place  my  hand  on  my  head ;  this  act  is  purely  mental. 
The  determination,  as  I  suppose,  in  some  unknown  way 
causes  molecular  motion  in  the  motor  ganglia ;  the  vibra- 
tions continue  through  the  motor  nerves ;  the  excitation 
affects  the  muscles,  causing  them  to  contract  and  relax  ; 
my  hand  moves  as  I  determined  it  should.  I  originate 
motion.  Mind  controls  matler.  That  self  as  choice 
originates  motion,  seems  certain ;  but  how  mind  acts  on 
matter  is  the  unsolved  mystery. 

2.  Self,  as  choice,  dominates  the  hody.  So  universal 
consciousness  testifies.  I  walk,  I  sit,  I  speak,  1  write ; 
at  will  I  act  in  these  ways.  Why  do  you  sing  ?  "  Be- 
cause I  choose  to."    Why  do  you  read?     "Because  I 


CHOICE.  279 

choose  to."  This  is  the  language  of  the  human  race, 
and  it  is  sound  psychology.  Our  spirits  dominate  the 
house  of  clay  in  which  we  sojourn. 

3.  The  infinite  will  moves  the  universe.  I  am  con- 
scious that  my  finite  will  moves  my  material  body,  and 
am  thus  enabled  to  apprehend  the  stupendous  truth  that 
the  infinite  will  moves  the  universe  and  is  the  original 
cause  of  all  movement.  As  I  move  my  body,  Jehovah 
moves  the  universe.  As  my  body  is  subject  to  my  will, 
so  the  universe  is  subject  to  "  the  infinite  and  eternal 
energy  from  whom  all  things  proceed." 

Choice  and  Law. — Law  is  choice.  Human  determi- 
nation becomes  human  law.  Divine  determination  be- 
comes divine  law. 

1.  Laws  of  nature.  The  infinite  determinations 
impressed  upon  mind  and  matter  are  called  the  laws  of 
nature. 

The  laws  of  attraction  are  the  divine  will  impressed 
upon  material  things.  Mental  laws  are  the  infinite  will 
impressed  upon  mind. 

2.  Ea^ressed  laws  are  expressed  determinations.  Ex- 
pressions of  human  determinations  become  human  laws. 
Determinations  of  the  parent  become  laws  to  the  child. 
Legislative  determinations  become  laws  to  the  people. 
Endowed  with  finite  will  and  the  capability  to  make 
finite  laws,  we  can  apprehend  the  infinite  will  and  in- 
finite laws. 

FataUsm — Choice  is  caused, — The  fatalist  intrenches 
himself  behind  the  following  chain  of  argument : 

1.  Self,  2A  intellect,  perceives  and  elaborates,  but 
does  not  originate.  Sensations  cause  perceptions,  and 
perceptions  cause  thought. 


280       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND   EDUCATION. 

2.  Self,  as  emotion,  feels,  but  knowing  causes 
feeling. 

3.  Self,  as  will,  chooses,  but  knowing  and  feeling 
cause  Mm  to  choose. 

4.  We  can  not  avoid  choosing  as  w^e  do,  for  motives 
cause  choice. 

5.  Liberty,  merit,  responsibility,  are  misnomers,  for 
man  is  a  mere  automaton. 

6.  There  is  no  God,  for  there  is  no  uncaused  cause. 
Man  is  a  hopeless  atheist.  , 

Classing  mind  as  a  material  force,  and  vie^wing 
choice  from  the  stand-point  of  the  conservation  of 
force,  the  fatalist  weaves  around  himself  his  fatal 
web. 

Liberty — Choice  is  uncaused  cause, — Choice  is  mind 
in  liberty.  We  are  free  to  choose.  Motives  occasion  but 
do  not  cause  choice.  The  following  facts  are  summoned 
as  witnesses  : 

1.  Universal  consciousness  attests  the  freedom  of 
self  as  choice.  You  and  all  rational  beings  are  conscious 
of  liberty  in  choosing.  You  know  that  you  are  a  self- 
determining  being.     Choice  is  mind  in  liberty. 

2.  Literature  rejpresents  man  as  free  and  responsible. 
This  characterizes  the  literature  of  all  ages  and  peoples. 
Only  theorists  are  fatalists.  Common  sense,  in  all  the 
ages,  has  built  upon  the  rock  of  personal  liberty. 

3.  Law  is  hased  on  the  freedom  of  choice.  Because 
he  knows  that  he  could  have  chosen  and  acted  otherwise, 
the  criminal  considers  his  punishment  just. 

4.  Liberty  of  choice  is  a  necessary  truth.  What- 
ever choices  we  have  made,  we  know  that  we  could 
have  chosen  otherwise.     Self,  as  noumenal  perception^ 


CHOICE.  281 

stands  face  to  face  with  his  acts  of  choice.  We  know 
intuitively  that  we  are  free  to  choose.  Being  free,  we 
are  responsible,  and  merit  and  demerit  characterize  our 
choices. 

5.  Choice  is  uncaused  cause.  You  decide  to  sing 
"  Hail,  Columbia."  Your  determination  originates 
motion.  The  self-activity  that  originates  motion  is  a 
first  cause.  Self,  as  choice,  is  a  creative  first  cause. 
Realizing  in  ourselves  creative  free-will,  we  apprehend 
the  infinite  free-will.     Man  is  a  hopeful  theist. 

"  The  question  whether  man  is  so  far  an  automaton  that  his  will 
is  stimulated  to  action  through  the  agency  of  feelings  produced  by 
knowledge  over  which  he  has  no  control,  is  as  old  as  philosophy. 
And  perhaps  no  man  lives  who  has  distinctly  raised  the  question  in 
its  application  to  himself,  and  who  has  not  decided  it  in  the  nega- 
tive.   We  are  conscious  of  our  own  freedom." 

Growth  of  Choice. — Will  includes  all  active  operations 
of  mind.  The  motor  ganglia,  the  motor  nerves,  and 
the  muscles  are  the  active  organs  or  implements  of  will. 
Determinations  to  act  initiate  movements. 

1.  Reflex  action.  In  early  infancy,  all  movements 
are  reflex.  The  infant  strikes  and  kicks  and  crows 
automatically.  Reflex  action  seems  to  prepare  the 
organism  for  voluntary  action. 

2.  Voluntary  action.  When  a  child  or  brute  tries 
to  act  in  a  certain  way,  the  act  is  called  voluntary.  All 
intentional  acts  are  voluntary.  The  infant  begins  to 
turn  the  head  to  keep  the  light  in  view.  This  is  still 
reflex  action.  But,  when  the  babe  tries  to  grasp  the 
light,  we  call  the  effort  the  beginning  of  voluntary 
action.  At  first,  impulse  leads  directly  to  action.  There 
is  no  deliberation,  no  choice. 


282       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

3.  Determined  action.  After  two  or  three  years  of 
effort,  the  child  gets  command-  of  itself.  It  walks,  it 
runs,  it  talks.  Its  acts  are  now  voluntary.  But  action 
still  follows,  for  the  most  part,  from  impulse.  Now  the 
child  begins  to  consider  before  yielding  to  impulse. 
Mollie  hesitates  to  go  with  Willie,  because  ma  will  not 
like  it,  and  at  last  she  chooses  not  to  go.  From  these 
almost  imperceptible  beginnings,  the  power  to  deter- 
mine in  view  of  motives  and  to  adhere  to  plans,  steadily 
grows.  Growth  makes  the  difference  between  the  im- 
pulsive and  pliant  child  and  the  man  of  iron  will. 

Education  of  Choice.* — "  What  you  achieve  is  simply 
a  question  of  will."  The  men  and  women  of  great  will- 
power move  and  rule  the  world.  The  soft  and  pliant 
Damocles,  the  wishy-washy  thing,  and  the  vacillating 
creature  with  no  mind  of  his  own,  are  the  ciphers  of 
society.  Decision  of  character  is  the  basis  of  a  grand 
manhood.  The  superior  man  chooses  for  himself, 
forms  his  own  plans,  and  changes  not,  except  for  suffi- 
cient reason.  Development  of  choice  calls  into  activity 
aU  the  faculties,  gives  decision  of  character,  and  tends 
to  a  grand  manhood. 

Comparative  Psychology. — Instinct  and  perceptive  in- 
telligence guide  brute  action.  Brutes  do  not  deliberate. 
Impulse  becomes  action.  Brutes  are  not  endowed  with 
the  power  of  rational  choice,  and  hence  are  not  moral 
beings.  As  brutes  are  destitute  of  the  power  of  choice, 
they  are  not  responsible.  Brute  impulse  dominates 
brute  action  ;  hence,  merit  and  demerit  do  not  apply  to 
bnite  actions. 

♦  See  "  Education  of  Choice,"  "  Applied  Psychology." 


CHOICE.  283 

SUGGESTIVE  STUDY-HINTS. 

Beyiew. — You  may  now  ascend  the  psychological  pyramid  to 
the  summit.  Show  that  each  faculty  is  merely  a  distinct  capability 
of  self.  Show  that  the  soul  is  a  unit  in  action.  What  is  meant  by 
a  mental  power  I  What  do  you  mean  by  the  will-powers  f  Explain 
the  other  names. 

What  do  you  mean  by  the  power  of  choice  f  Give  the  names 
designating  this  power,  and  tell  why  each  is  used. 

Analyze  one  of  your  acts  of  choice.  What  precedes  rational 
choice  f  what  follows  f     What  do  you  do  when  you  choose  f 

Give  the  first  characteristic  of  choice ;  second ;  third.  Illus- 
trate each. 

What  is  the  office  of  choice  f  Give  the  first  example ;  the  sec- 
ond ;  the  third. 

Give  the  author's  definition  of  choice ;  give  your  definition ;  gi\Q 
the  definitions  of  several  authors. 

What  do  you  mean  by  a  motive!  a  high  motive  f  a  low  motive! 
Explain  the  difference  between  causing  choice  and  occasioning 
choice.    Illustrate. 

What  are  the  antecedents  of  rational  choice  ?  consequents  ?  Il- 
lustrate. 

Show  that  self,  as  choice,  originates  motion ;  dominates  the 
body.     Why  are  we  able  to  apprehend  infinite  will  ? 

What  is  law!  a  law  of  nature!  a  human  law!  How  are  choice 
and  law  related  ! 

Is  the  brute  endowed  with  rational  choice !  Are  brutes  moral 
beings!    Why! 

What  is  fatalism  !  Give  the  line  of  argument.  Give  the  con- 
clusion. 

What  is  liberty  !  Give  the  line  of  argument.  Give  the  conclu- 
sion.    What  is  an  atheist !  a  theist !  an  agnostic  ! 

Tell  about  the  growth  of  choice.  About  what  age  is  purposed 
action  first  clearly  indicated!  How  early  does  the  child  deliberate! 
At  what  age  does  choice  become  intentional  action  ! 

How  is  choice  developed !  What  do  you  mean  by  decision  of 
character! 

Letter. — You  have  a  grand  theme  for  your  last  psychological 
letter.  I^ead  your  friend  to  grasp  fully  the  idea  that  he  is  endowed 
with  the  power  of  self-determination,  that  he  is  free  and  responsible. 


284       ELEMExVTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 


1. 
IL 

ni. 

IV. 
V. 


Topical  Analysis  of  Chapter  XXVIII. 

Position. 

1.  Intellect.      2.  Emotion.      3.  Choice. 


Names. 

Power  of  choice. 

Power  of  self-determination. 

Acts  of  Choice. 

Choice  of  Moses. 
Your  choice. 

Office  of  Choice. 

Self-determination. 
Origination  of  motion. 

Characteristics  of  Choice. 

Uncaused  cause. 
Mind  in  liberty. 


Power  of  preference. 


Choice  of  Solomon. 


Preference. 


Avoidability. 


VI. 

Definitions  of  Choice. 

Author's.           Original. 

Various  definitions. 

VII. 

Motives. 

Definitions.      Low  motives. 

High  motives. 

VIII. 

Acts  of  Choice. 

Antecedents.        Choosing. 

Consequents. 

IX. 

Choice  and  Motion. 

Choice  initiates  motion.            Choice  dominates  the  body. 
Infinite  choice  moves  the  universe. 

X. 

Choice  and  Law. 

Law  is  choice. 
Human  laws. 

Laws  of  nature. 
Moral  laws. 

XI.  Choice  and  Sin. 

Sin,  intentional  violation  of  law. 
Only  rational  beings  can  sin. 

XII.  Fatalism — Choice  is  caused. 

1.  Sensations  cause  perception.  2.  Emotions  cause  choosing. 
3.  We  can  not  avoid  choosing.  4.  Man  is  an  automaton. 
5.  There  is  no  God. 


THE   WILL-POWERS— GENERAL  VIEW.  285 

XI  n.   Liberty — Choice  is  causa  sai. 

1.  Consciousness  attests  liberty.  2.  Literature  attests  liberty. 
3.  Law  is  based  on  liberty.  4.  Liberty  a  necessary  idea. 
5.  Choice,  uncaused  cause.         6.  There  is  a  God. 

XIV.  Growth  of  Choice. 

Reflex  action  and  volition.        Impulsive  action. 
Determined  action. 

XV.   Education  of  Choice. 

Importance.  Time.  Method. 


CHAPTER   XXIX. 

THE   WILL-POWERS — GENERAL   VIEW. 

Will  is  Self- Willing. — Our  will-powers  are  our  capa- 
bilities of  self-direction,  self-determination,  and  self- 
action.  Because  will  is  mind  in  liberty,  these  are  called 
the  voluntary  powers ;  because  determination  leads  on 
to  action,  these  are  called  the  active  powers. 

r  The  Will-powers. 

The  Voluntary  Powers. 
Names. —  -^    The  Powers  of  Self-Control. 

The  Active  Powers. 
1^  The  Will. 

Intellect,  Emotion,  Will — Step  by  step  we  have  as- 
cended the  psychological  pyramid.  At  its  summit  we 
lind  the  will-powers.  Choice  is  the  cap-stone.  Our 
voluntary  powers,  we  discover,  are  simple,  as  compared 
with  our  cognitive  powers  or  our  emotions.  Of  our 
mental  energies,  we  find  our  emotions  by  far  the  most 
numerous,  complex,  and  varied.     Our  intellectual  facul- 


286       ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION. 

ties  are  relatively  few,  jet  exceedingly  subtile  in  their 
interdependence  and  action.  Our  voluntary  powers 
are  yet  more  simple,  and  offer  their  chief  difficulty  in 
the  problem  of  liberty. 

As  possessed  of  intellect  alone,  we  have  represented 
man  by  one  line ;  as  possessed  of  intellect  and  sensi- 
bility, we  have  represented  him  by  two  lines ;  and  we 
now  represent  him  as  possessed  of  intellect,  sensibility, 
and  will  by  three  lines,  united  thus : 


>-■ 

\- 

1- 

o 

J 

_l 

u 

m 

_l 

UJ 

z 

1- 

Ul 

z 

<rt 

Without  intellect,  there  are  no  ideas,  and  therefore 
no  emotions ;  without  emotion,  there  is  no  motive ; 
without  motive,  there  is  no  choice;  without  choice, 
there  is  no  rational  action.* 

CHOICE. 


WILL-POWERS. 


■ilre^/ 


l]PN. 


Attention  is  the  self-directing  power  of  the  mind ; 
volition  is  the  self-acting  power  of  the  mind  ;  choice  is 
the  self-determining  power  of  the  mind.  As  attention, 
seK  concentrates  his  efforts ;  as  choice,  self  decides  ;  as 
action,  self  executes  his  decisions. 

Will  is  Self.—"  We  have  now  finished  our  study  of  the  various 
factors  of  the  self.  It  is  now  necessary  very  briefly  to  notice  their 
relation  to  each  other.     The  unity  of  the  self  is  the  will.    The  will 

*  Dr.  Mark  Hopkins. 


THE  WILL-POWERS— GENERAL  VIEW.  287 

is  the  man,  psychologically  speaking.  Knowledge  we  have  seen  to 
be  in  its  esssnce  a  process  of  the  realization  of  the  universal  self-con- 
sciousness; feeling  to  be  the  accompaniment  of  self-realization  ;  and 
its  specific  quality  to  be  dependent  upon  the  definite  form  of  self- 
realization  accomplished.  Will  we  have  just  seen  to  be  the  self  re- 
alizing itself.  This  is  involved  throughout  in  physical  and  pruden- 
tial control,  and  it  is  explicitly  developed  when  we  study  moral  con- 
trol. Here  the  will  is  seen  to  be  self-determination.  The  will,  in 
short,  constitutes  the  meaning  of  knowledge  and  of  feeling;  and 
moral  will  constitutes  the  meaning  of  will. 

*'  Moral  will  is  the  conscious  realization  by  man  that  the  real  and 
the  ideal  might  to  be  one,  and  the  resulting  attempt  to  make  them 
one  in  specific  acts  and  in  the  formation  of  character.  Religious 
will  is  conscious  realization  that  they  are  one  because  man  is  a  self- 
determining  power.  It  is  the  realization  that  a  perfect  will  is  real- 
ity. It  is  the  realization  of  freedom  through  the  realization  of  the 
union  of  finite  and  the  infinite  Personality.  It  is  only  when  we  rec- 
ognize this  latter  activity  of  will  that  we  are  able  really  to  compre- 
hend the  previous  forms  of  activity."  * 

Will,  the  Court  of  Final  Appeal— Ideas  fight.  Emo- 
tions wage  war.  Appetites  and  passions  clamor  for 
gratification ;  egoistic  emotions  contend  for  self ;  love 
pleads  for  others;  conscience  imperatively  battles  for 
right.  Fiercer  conflicts  rage  in  the  human  soul  than  on 
fields  of  carnage.  But  self,  as  choice,  is  sovereign. 
Keason  examines  all  the  arguments  and  weighs  all  the 
motives.  In  view  of  all  the  considerations,  self,  as 
choice,  decides.     Happy  he  who  chooses  wisely  I 

♦  John  Dewey,  in  "  Peychology." 


SYLLABUS 
OF  BALDWIN'S  ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY. 

I<rom  the  International  Reading   Circle  Course  of 
Professional  Study. 


Pages  I  to  34. 

ATTENTION. 

1.  Formulate  the  definition  that  is  clearest  to  your  mind, 

and  state  why  you  prefer  that  to  others. 

2.  Of  the  two  kinds,  Objective  and  Subjective  Attention, 

which  is  it  most  important  to  cultivate  in  the  periods 
of  school  life  .-* 

3.  How  is  the  power  of  Voluntary  Attention  to  be  educated  ? 

INSTINCT. 

1.  Characteristics. 

2.  Classes. 

3.  Relation  to  Intellect. 

The  author's  very  suggestive  study  hints  should  be  made  use  of  for  care- 
fully thought-out  written  work. 

IMPORTANT  TERMS. 

The  terms  presented  need  to  become  part  of  your  vocabulary  to  such 
extent  that  each  may  readily  and  definitely  bring  into  your  thought, 
at  any  recurrence,  its  appropriate  idea. 

If  this  is  your  first  study  of  the  subject  of  Psychology,  you  will  need  to 
go  over  this  section  many  times. 

Pages  35  to  70. 

THE   SENSORIUM. 

1.  Define  the  relations  existing  between  nerve-cells,  gan- 

glia, and  nerve-fibers. 

2.  Describe  nerve  currents  of  sensor  and  of  motor  varie- 

ties. 

3.  Explain  reflex  action,  by  citing  an  example. 

SENSATION. 

1.  Discuss  education  of  the  senses. 

2.  Importance  of  sense-training. 


290  SYLLABUS  OF 

3.  General  method  of  sense-training. 

4.  Illustrative   examples    of    school    exercises   for   sense- 

training. 

5.  Special  exercises  for  each  of  the  senses. 

SENSE-PERCEPTION. 

After  grasping  clearly  the  nature  of  sense-perception  much  interesting 
study  may  be  found  in  the  relations  between  direct  and  indirect 
products  of  the  senses,  as  given  in  columns  5  and  6  of  the  table  on 
page  65,  and  in  then  considering  columns  i  and  7,  as  presenting 
different  sources  of  like  ideas. 

Pages  71  to  104. 

I.    SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS. 

1.  Discuss  the  differences   between   sense-perception  and 

conscious-perception. 

2.  Do  you  prefer  this  latter  term,  or  some   other,  for  the 

cognition  of  the  mind's  own  states  and  acts,  and  why  ? 

3.  When  in  the  school  course  should  there  be  direct  effort 

to  develop  the  power  of  perceiving  the  states  and  acts 
of  the  mind  ? 

4.  Of  what  particular  value  to  the  teacher  is  the  habit  of 

considering  percepts  of  self-consciousness  ? 

II.    INTUITION. 

1.  Noumena  and  phenomena. 

2.  Noumenal  percepts  defined. 

3.  State  why  you  agree  or  disagree  with  Dr.  Laws  in  his 

defining  of  intuition  as  a  faculty  simple  in  nature  but 
complex  in  function. 

Pages  107  to  123. 

THE   REPRESENTATIVE   FACULTIES  :   MEMORY. 

1.  Show  how  the  mental  act  in  re-presentation  differs  from 

the  mental  act  in  perception. 

2.  Show  what  relation  memory  bears  to  the  other  two  forms 

of  representation. 

3.  Would  you  analyze  complete  memory  into  four  elements, 

or  three  ? 


BALDWIN'S   ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY.        29 1 

4.  Show  how  memory  enters  into  every  complete  act  of 

knowing. 

5.  State  the  three  requirements  for  good  memory  under 

the  "  Law  of  the  Brain." 

6.  State  the  three  under  the  "  Law  of  Acquisition." 

7.  State   the   five   relations   in   which   the  *'  Law  of  Sug- 

gestion or  Association  "  aids  memory. 

8.  Is   memory  well  trained  in  our   ordinary  school  exer- 

cises ? 

Pages  1 24  to  1 50. 

PHANTASY  AND   IMAGINATION. 

1.  Specify  the  characteristics  by  which  phantasy  and  im- 

agination differ  from  memory. 

2.  Discuss  the  suggestive  value  of  phantasy. 

3.  Show  l)y  illustration  what  materials  are  used  in  forming 

a  product  of  phantasy. 

4.  Are  the  same,  or  other,  materials  used  in  forming  a  prod- 

uct of  imagination  ? 

5.  State  the  distinction  between  phantasy  and  imagination. 

6.  Why  is  it  important  that  specific  training  be  given  to 

the  imagination  ? 

Pages  1 53  to  1 70. 

THE  THINKING   POWERS. — CONCEPTION. 

1.  Note  the  distinctions  and  relations  between  conception, 

judgment,  and  reason, 

2.  Show  how  we  arrive  at  general  notions  or  concepts. 

3.  Define  the  five  elements  or  steps  in  conception  : 

a.  Analytic  observation. 
If.  Abstraction. 
f.  Comparison. 
</.  Generalization. 
e.  Classification. 

4.  Discuss  the  difference  between  ^Aiension  and  ///tension, 

as  applied  to  concepts. 


292  SYLLABUS   OF 

5.  Illustrate,  by  citing  examples  in  your  own  thought-ex- 

perience, the  following  pairs  of  thought  processes  : 

a.  To  analyze — to  synthesize. 

b.  To  discriminate — to  assimilate. 

c.  To  define — to  classify. 

6.  Illustrate,  by  citing  examples  in  your  teaching  experience, 

how  the  power  of  conception  may  be  developed  in  the 
minds  of  children. 

Pages  1 7 1  to  202. 

JUDGMENT. 

1.  Distinguish,  by  definition  or  by  illustration,  the  mental 

power,  the  mental  act,  the  mental  product : 

a.  Judgment. 

b.  Judging. 

c.  A  judgment. 

2.  Specify  the  three  logical  elements  of  a  judgment. 

3.  Show  that  all  three  are  present  even  though  the  judg- 

ment be  expressed  in  but  two  words. 

4.  Explain   what   is   meant   by  universal  judgments.     By 

particular  judgments. 

5.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  necessary  judgments. 

REASON. 

1.  Distinguish  the  mental  power,  the  mental  act,  the  mental 

product : 
a.  Reason. 
b    Reasoning. 
c.  A  conclusion. 

2.  Show  which  two  logical  terms  are  in  each  several  propo- 

sition of  a  complete  argument : 

a.  Major  term.  a.  Major  premise. 

b.  Middle  term.  b.  Minor  premise. 

c.  Minor  term.  c.  Conclusion. 

3.  Illustrate  the  process  of  inductive  reasoning. 


BALDWIN'S   ELEMENTARY   PSYCHOLOGY.        293 

4.  Note  the  difference  between  determining  general  truths, 

or  laws,  and  applying  them. 

5.  State  which  of  these  two  processes  you  believe  to  be  the 

true  educative  work  of  school  children. 

6.  Cite  and  criticise  some  specific  example  of  wrong  method 

in  elementary  teaching,  with  reference  to  its  employ- 
ment of  deductive  or  of  inductive  process  of  reasoning. 

Pages  205  to  229. 

THE   FEELINGS. 

1.  Distinguish  feeling  from  knowing  and  willing. 

2.  Distinguish  from  each  other  the  three  classes  of  feel- 

ings : 

a.  The  instincts. 

b.  The  physical  feelings. 

c.  The  emotions. 

3.  Specify  the  characteristics  of  instinct. 

4.  Explain  how  reflex  bodily  action  differs  from  instinct. 

5.  Show  what  special  function  is  performed  in  the  activity 

of  the  special  sensations,  by  the  end  organs,  the  sensor- 
nerves,  and  the  central  organs,  severally. 

6.  Illustrate  the  office  and  value  of  the  appetites. 

7.  State  the  distinction  between  natural  and  artificial  appe- 

tites. 

8.  Express  your  own  view  of  the  difference  between  lawful 

and  unlawful  gratification  of  appetite. 

9.  Show  the  value  of  the  egoistic  emotions. 

10.  Show  how  the  good  of  some  of  these  egoistic  emotions 

passes  over  into  the  bad  quality  of  selfishness  or  ego- 
tism. 

11.  Define  altruistic  emotions,  and  classify  them  under  the 

heads,  sympathies  and  antipathies. 

12.  Discuss  from  your  standpoint  the  principle  that  "  the 

emotions  are  all  good  in  themselves,  and  are  not  to  be 
eradicated  but  guided." 


294  SYLLABUS   OF 

Pages  230  to  259. 

THE  HIGHER  EMOTIONS. 
I.   THE   TRUE. 

1.  Show  how  the  emotional  nature  is  influenced  by  the  dis- 

cernment of  truth. 

2.  Illustrate  the  use  that  should  be  made  of  this  influence 

in  good  teaching. 

II.   THE   BEAUTIFUL. 

3.  Specify   some    of   the    different   sources    of    ideas    of 

beauty. 

4.  Explain  how  character  is  influenced  by  the  prevalence 

of  Deauty  and  of  ugliness. 

5.  State  some  practical  means  of  cultivating  the  aesthetic 

emotions. 

III.    THE    GOOD. 

6.  Show  how  the  conscience  is  a  manifestation  of  the  emo- 

tional nature. 

7.  Show  how  it  is  true  that  "  conscience  is  infallible." 

8.  Explain  why  conscience  can  not  be  depended  upon  to 

guide  every  person's  actions, 

9.  State  briefly  how  you  believe  the  moral  nature  may  best 

be  educated. 

Pages  263  to  287. 

THE   WILL    POWERS. 

1.  Show  how  the  power  of  attention  is  to  be  cultivated. 

2.  State  some  forms  of  school  work  that  tend  to  strengthen 

this  power,  and  some  that  tend  to  dissipate  it, 
^.  Distinguish  rational  action  from  impulsive  action. 

4.  Illustrate  the  three  kinds  of  action,  and  point  out  the 

characteristic  element  in  each  instance. 

5.  Specify  the  emotional  and  rational  steps  that  lead  up  to 

choice. 

6.  Explain   the   principle  that   choice  is  free  rather  than 

necessitated. 


INDEX 


Abstraction,  156. 
Action^  chapter  xxvii,  266. 
Acts  ot  action  analyzed,  266. 

of  sesthetical  emotions  analyzed, 
234 

of  altruistic  emotion  analyzed,  223, 
226. 

of  appetite  analyzed,  208,  209. 

of  attention  analyzed,  4. 

of  choice  analyzed,  274. 

of  conception  analyzed,  155. 

of  conscience  analyzed,  240. 

of  consciousness  analyzed,  72. 

of  egoistic  emotions  analyzed,  216. 

of  imagination  analyzed,  134. 

of  judgment  analyzed,  171. 

of  Knowledge  emotion,  231. 

of  memory  analyzed,  lOS. 

of  noumenal-perception  analyzed, 
87. 

of  phantasy  analyzed,  125. 

of  reason  analyzed,  180. 

of  sense-perception  analyzed,  60. 
JSsthetic  emotions,  234. 
Affections,  222. 
Agnosticism,  96. 
Altruistic  emotions,  chapter  xxi,  222, 

2^6. 
Analogy,  118. 
Analytfc  observation,  156. 
Antecedents  of  choice,  277. 
Antipathies,  227. 
Appetites,  chapter  xix,  208. 
Applied  psychology,  xv. 
Arguments,  184. 
Attention,  chapters  i  and  xxvi,  4, 

264. 
Attention    and    consciousness,    77, 

113. 
Attention  and  memory,  113. 


Author  of  law,  248. 
Author's  preface,  xviL 
A  voidability,  275. 
Axioms,  156. 

Bad  intentions,  246. 
Beauty-emotions,  234. 
Beauty,  objective,  236. 
Belief  and  reason,  191. 
Benevolent  emotions,  222. 
Body  and  soul,  52. 
Brain,  39. 

Capabilities,  56,  57,  262. 
Cause,  28,  95,  181. 
Cerebration,  44. 
Cerebrum,  42,  43. 
Certainty,  189, 190. 
CharacteVj  237. 
Characteristics  of  action,  267. 

of  aesthetic  emotions,  234. 

of  altruistic  emotions,  223. 

of  an  appetite,  209. 

of  attention,  6. 

of  choice,  275. 

of  conception,  158. 

of  conscience,  243. 

of  egoistic  emotions,  217. 

of  imagination,  136. 

of  instinct,  16. 

of  judgment,  173. 

of  memory,  110. 

oi  noumenal-perception,  88. 

of  phantasy,  126. 

of  reason,  183. 

of  sense-perception,  61. 

of  truth-emotions^  282. 
Choice,  chapter  xxvii,  273. 
Choice  and  law,  279. 
Classes  of  aesthetic  emotions,  234. 


INDEX. 


Classes  of  altruistic  emotions,  224, 

of  cosmic  emotions,  230, 

of  emotions,  216,  256, 

of  feeliucrs,  206. 

of  self-emotions,  218. 

of  percepts,  103, 
Classification,  157,  163. 
Comparative  psychology,  50,  68,  79, 
121,  132,  143,  167,  177,  192,  220, 
282. 
Comparison,  156. 
Comprehension,  162. 
Conception,  chapter  xiv,   155,  164, 

166. 
Concepts,  159,  199. 
Conclusions,  185, 
Conscience,  chapter  xxiv,  240. 
Consciousness,  cnapter  vii,  71. 
Conscious-percepts,  76. 
Contiguity,  118. 
Contrast,  117. 
Correlation,  118. 
Cosmic  emotions,  230,  257. 
Culture  and  attention,  264. 

Deduction,  188. 
Definition,  163. 
Definition  of  action,  267. 

of  appetite,  210. 

of  altruistic  emotion,  224. 

of  aesthetic  emotion,  235. 

of  choice,  276. 

of  conception,  158,  198. 

of  conscience,  243. 

of  consciousness,  102,  96, 

of  egoistic  emotions,  217. 

of  ima;^ination,  137,  148. 

of  instinct,  17,  106. 

of  judgment,  94,  198. 

of  memory,  111,  144. 

of  noumenal-perception,  102,  96. 

of  phantasy,  127,  144. 

of  reason,  183,  196, 

of  sensation,  60. 

of  sense-perception,  101,  62. 

of  truth,  232, 
Denomination,  159, 
DesireSj  egoistic,  219. 
Determined  action,  282, 
Disbelief,  189. 
Divine  energies,  28. 
Doubt,  189. 
Dreams,  129. 
Duty  emotions,  241. 

Editor's  preface,  vii. 

Education  of  oesthetic  emotions,  238, 


Education  of  attention,  265,  10. 

of  altruistic  emotions,  226. 

of  conception,  167, 

of  conscience,  260. 

of  conscious-perception,  78. 

of  cosmic  emotions,  250, 

of  imagination,  142, 

of  judgment,  177. 

of  memory,  120, 

of  noumenal-perception,  97. 

of  phantasy,  132, 

of  reason,  192. 

of  sense-perception,  66. 

of  senses,  51. 

of  self-emotions,  220, 

of  truth-emotions,  233. 
Egoistic  emotions,  chapter  xx,  215, 

256. 
Elementary  psychology,  xiv. 
Elements  of  memory,  109. 

of  conception,  156. 

of  faith,  191. 

of  judgment,  174. 
Emotion,  intellect,  will,  264. 
Emotional  imagination,  140. 
Emotions,  general  view,  255. 

classed,  256,  216. 

defined,  255. 
Energies  defined,  28. 
Enthymeme,  186, 
Ethical  emotions,  240. 

imagination,  140. 

knowledge,  244,  248, 
Executive  volition,  266. 
Experience  and  memories,  112. 

Faculties  of  the  soul,  56,  57,  162. 
Failure— emotions,  228. 
Faith,  190. 
Fatalism,  279. 
Feelincrs,  57,  206,  255, 
Forgetting.  119, 
Forms  of  thinking,  200. 

Ganglia,  36,  47. 
Generalization,  157. 
Genus,  162. 
Good  intentions,  246, 
Gratification  of  appetites,  211. 
Growth  of  attention,  8, 

of  conception,  167. 

of  conscience,  249, 

of  conscious-perception,  77. 

of  imagination,  142, 

of  judgment,  177. 

of  memory,  119. 

of  noumenal-perception,  97. 


INDEX. 


297 


Growth  of  phantasy,  132. 

of  reason,  191. 

of  self-emotionsj  220. 

of  .-ense-perception,  66. 

of  sympathy,  226. 

of  truth-emotion,  233. 
Guides  to  appetite,  211. 

Habit,  271. 

Happiness,  211,  219,  251. 
Iliippv  dreams,  132. 
Hates,  227. 
Heart,  215,  246. 
Hiarher  emotions,  230. 
Humor,  237. 

Ideals,  138,  150. 
ImuL'ination,  chapter  xii,  133. 

detined.  137,  148. 

and  memory,  139, 

and  phanta*-<jy-,  142. 
Immediate  sclt-emotions,  220. 
Imperatives     of     conscience,    242, 

243. 
Important  terms,  26. 
Impulsive  action,  267. 
Individual,  161. 
Induction,  1-7. 
Infallible,  conscience,  247. 
Infinity,  95.  279. 
Inj'anity,  131.  _ 

Instinct,  chapter  ii,  15,  206. 
Intellectual  faculties,  57,  195,  196. 
Intellect  and  instinct,  19. 

emotion,  will,  57,  264. 
Intempenmce,  212. 
Intentions,  246. 
Introductory  lessons,  4-44. 
Intuition,  100,  104,  247. 
Intuitive  ethical  ideas,  247. 

Judgment,  chanter  xv,  171,  177. 
Judgments,  176,  200. 

Kinds  of  action,  268,  281. 

of  imagination,  140. 
Knowledge  emotions,  281. 

Language,  270. 
Lawful  gratification,  211. 
Law  and  choice,  279. 
Laws,  80. 

of  conscience,  249. 

of  memory,  114. 
Liberty,  2<i0. 

Limits  of  imagination,  186. 
Literature,  conscience,  245. 


Love,  225. 

Low  motives,  277. 

Malevolent  emotions,  222. 
Matter,  27,  94. 
Memory,  chapter  x,  108. 

and  phantasy,  128. 
Memory-knowledge,  111. 
Mental  phenomena,  26. 

laws,  mental  energies,  29,  30. 
Mesmerism,  131. 

Mind,  27,  33,  94.  ^ 

Misery,  212. 
Moral' guide,  245. 

law,  248. 
Motion  and  action,  45,  269. 

and  choice,  278. 
Motives,  276,  277. 
Motorium,  45,  269. 

Natural  appetites,  210. 
Necessary  ideas,  86,  91. 

judgment,  177. 

realities,  90. 
Nerve-cells,  35. 
Nerve-currents,  38. 
Nerves,  36. 
Noumena,  26,  86. 
Noumenal-perception,    chapter   vii, 

85. 
Noumenal  percepts,  89. 

Office  of  action,  267. 

of  ffisthetic  emotion,  235. 

of  altruistic  emotion,  217. 

ot  appetite,  209. 

of  attention,  264,  265. 

of  choice,  274. 

of  conception,  1 57. 

of  conscience,  241. 

of  consciousness,  73. 

of  egoistic  emotion,  217. 

of  imagination,  134. 

of  instinct,  15. 

of  judgment,  72. 

of  memory,  110. 

of  noumenal-perception,  88. 

of  phantasy,  125. 

of  sense-perception,  61. 

of  truth-emotions,  231. 
Origin  of  instincts,  21. 

Perceptive  faculties,  100. 

knowing,  100. 

products,  103. 
Personal  emotions,  216. 
Perverted  appetites,  211. 


INDEX. 


Phantasy,  chapter  xi,  124. 

and  iiuasrinution,  141. 

in  dreams,  129. 
Phenomena,  ^6. 
Philosophical  imajrination,  141. 
Philosophic  emotions,  231. 
Physical  feelings,  44,  60,  207. 

forces,  28,  30. 
Phyt^iolofrical  psychology,  51,  201. 
Physiology  of  the  emotions,  258. 
Play  of  emotions,  227. 
Pleasure,  211. 

Powers  of  the  mind,  56,  57,  262. 
Premises,  185. 
Private  students,  xix. 
Products  of  conception,  159,  199. 

of  conscious-perception,  103,  76. 

of  imagination,  138,  150. 

otjudjjment,  175,  200. 

of  memory.  111,  147. 

of  noumenal-perception,  89,  103. 

of  phantasy,  149. 

of  reason,  184,  200. 

of  sense-perception,  103.  63. 
Properties  of  concepts,  159. 

ot  jud^'ments,  175. 
Prospective  self-emotions,  219. 
Psycnology  defined,  32. 
Psychological  pyramid,  106, 152,  204, 
252. 

tree,  56. 
Pyramid  of  energies,  28. 

Kational  action,  269. 

emotions,  230. 
Eeason,  chapter  xvi,  180. 
Reasoning  processes,  183,  187. 
Keasons,  183,  184,  200. 
fiellex  action  an  instinct,  18. 

sensor-action,  45,  268,  281. 
Remorse,  242,  251. 
Representative  powers,  107, 108-146. 
Resemblance,  117. 
Retrospective  emotions,  220,  225. 
Right,  93. 

Science,  31. 

Self- betterment,  219. 

Self-consciousness,  chapter  vii,  71. 

Self-control,  212. 

Self-determination,  274. 

Self-emotions,  216. 

Sensation,  chapter  v,  44,  60j  207. 

Sense-perception,  chapter  vi,  59, 101. 

Sense-percepts,  63,  103. 

Sensibilities,  206. 

Sensonum,  35,  45,  207,  269. 


Sensor-lines,  48,  50. 
Sensor-orcrans.  38.  39. 
Somnambulism,  130. 
Soul-energies,  28. 

energies,  outline,  56,  57,  262. 
Space,  27,  86,  92. 
Species,  161. 
Spiritual  emotions,  290. 
Sub-consciousnesSj  80. 
Subject-lessons,  xiii. 
Sublimity,  237. 
Success-emotions,  228. 
Suofgestion,  laws  of,  116. 
Suggestive  Study-Hints : 

Action,  272. 

Esthetic  emotions,  238. 

Altruistic  emotions,  229. 

Appetites,  213. 

Attention,  12. 

Choice,  283. 

Conception,  168. 

Consciousness,  83. 

Ethical  emotions,  258. 

Imagination,  144. 

Tns-tinct,  23. 

Judgment,  178. 

Memory.  121. 

Noumenal-perception,  98. 

Phantasv,  133. 

Reason,  193. 

Self-emotions,  221. 

Sensation,  53,  207. 

Sense- perception,  68. 

Terms,  33. 

Truth-emotions,  233. 
Syllogisms,  184. 
Sympathies,  226. 

Teaching  psychology,  xx. 

Temperance,  212. 

Terms  of  a  judgment,  175. 

Tests  of  necessary  ideas,  88. 

The  instincts,  20. 

Thinking,  153,  196,  201. 

Thought  powers,  155-195. 
pvramid,  163. 

Time,  87,  92. 

Topical  analyses,  14,  24,  34,  54,  70, 
84,  99,  123,  133,  144,  150,  170, 
179,  194,  214,  240,  253,  273,  284. 

Training,  252. 

Tree  of  necc-i^sary  ideas,  91. 

Truth-emotions,  chapter  xxii,  230. 

Ugliness,  236. 
Unbelief,  189. 
Uncaused  cause,  281. 


INDEX. 


299 


Unconscious  cerebration,  81. 
Unlawful  gratification,  212. 

Verification,  189. 
Vision,  131. 
Volition,  264. 
Voluntary  action,  281. 


Ways  of  studying  mind,  2. 
Wild  oats,  251. 
Wm  defined,  258,  285. 
Will,  emotion,  intellect,  264. 
Will-powers,  57,  263,  285. 
Wit,  237. 


THE  END. 


21 


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